technological capacity of the US and their extended marine areas, the movement of
aquaculture activities into offshore areas gained momentum for a period of time
(Dalton 2004) and has encouraged other western countries to follow.
Several studies have estimated that tons to tens of tons of wild fish congregate in
the immediate area around fish farms in both warm and cold-temperate environments (Dempster et al. 2004, 2009; Leonard et al. 2011). For some species, artificial
reefs can increase the availability of critical habitat (Polovina and Sakai 1989) for
feeding, spawning, and juvenile refugia (Jensen et al. 2000) in addition to reducing
the detrimental impacts on existing habitats by mobile gear exclusion (Claudet and
Pelletier 2004). Additionally, these constructions can be helpful in developing cost
effective fishing practices by reducing displacement cost for the inshore fleets and
reducing competition for territory between fishermen. The question whether artificial reefs close to aquaculture sites would decrease the impact of cultured fish
waste on the surrounding ecosystem has been suggested as a topic of research
(Buschmann et al. 2008).
1.3.3 Pilot Projects in Germany
In Germany, the plans for the massive expansion of wind farms in offshore areas of
the North Sea triggered the idea of a combination of wind turbines with other uses.
Various multi-use concepts were followed led by tourism, marine protected areas
(MPAs), passive fishery actions as well as desalination and research, just to name a
few (see Fig. 1.4). Another concept is to co-use wind farm installations with
extensive aquaculture of native bivalves and macroalgae (e.g. Buck 2002, 2004;
Buck and Buchholz 2004; Buck et al. 2008, 2012; Lacroix and Pioch 2011). Due
to the fact that offshore wind farms provide an appropriately sized area free of
commercial shipping traffic (as most offshore wind farms are designed as
restricted-access areas due to hazard mitigation concerns), projects on open ocean
aquaculture have been carried out since 2000 in the German Bight (Buck 2001).
Further expansion towards finfish culture has since then been proposed and carried
out in land-based facilities with regard to system design and coupling technologies
for submersible fish cages as well as Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
and site-selection.
The combination of wind energy and aquaculture enterprises was already proven
in China in the early 1990s (Chunrong et al. 1994), however, these wind turbines
were land-based and used to enhance dissolved oxygen in the water column as well
as to increase fishpond temperature. Today, many other research institutes have
adopted this concept and have conducted feasibility studies within their coastal and
EEZ waters, in Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, the UK, USA and others
(Figs. 1.4 and 1.5; Wever et al. 2015).
1 Introduction: New Approaches to Sustainable Offshore …
11
aquaculture activities into offshore areas gained momentum for a period of time
(Dalton 2004) and has encouraged other western countries to follow.
Several studies have estimated that tons to tens of tons of wild fish congregate in
the immediate area around fish farms in both warm and cold-temperate environments (Dempster et al. 2004, 2009; Leonard et al. 2011). For some species, artificial
reefs can increase the availability of critical habitat (Polovina and Sakai 1989) for
feeding, spawning, and juvenile refugia (Jensen et al. 2000) in addition to reducing
the detrimental impacts on existing habitats by mobile gear exclusion (Claudet and
Pelletier 2004). Additionally, these constructions can be helpful in developing cost
effective fishing practices by reducing displacement cost for the inshore fleets and
reducing competition for territory between fishermen. The question whether artificial reefs close to aquaculture sites would decrease the impact of cultured fish
waste on the surrounding ecosystem has been suggested as a topic of research
(Buschmann et al. 2008).
1.3.3 Pilot Projects in Germany
In Germany, the plans for the massive expansion of wind farms in offshore areas of
the North Sea triggered the idea of a combination of wind turbines with other uses.
Various multi-use concepts were followed led by tourism, marine protected areas
(MPAs), passive fishery actions as well as desalination and research, just to name a
few (see Fig. 1.4). Another concept is to co-use wind farm installations with
extensive aquaculture of native bivalves and macroalgae (e.g. Buck 2002, 2004;
Buck and Buchholz 2004; Buck et al. 2008, 2012; Lacroix and Pioch 2011). Due
to the fact that offshore wind farms provide an appropriately sized area free of
commercial shipping traffic (as most offshore wind farms are designed as
restricted-access areas due to hazard mitigation concerns), projects on open ocean
aquaculture have been carried out since 2000 in the German Bight (Buck 2001).
Further expansion towards finfish culture has since then been proposed and carried
out in land-based facilities with regard to system design and coupling technologies
for submersible fish cages as well as Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
and site-selection.
The combination of wind energy and aquaculture enterprises was already proven
in China in the early 1990s (Chunrong et al. 1994), however, these wind turbines
were land-based and used to enhance dissolved oxygen in the water column as well
as to increase fishpond temperature. Today, many other research institutes have
adopted this concept and have conducted feasibility studies within their coastal and
EEZ waters, in Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, the UK, USA and others
(Figs. 1.4 and 1.5; Wever et al. 2015).
1 Introduction: New Approaches to Sustainable Offshore …
11