habitat is generally used synonymously with biotope, so that the biotope of a
community is also called its habitat, (see for instance the Habitats Directive of the
European Union). The widespread use of the term habitat in biology goes back to
Linnaeus (1753) who in Latin described the occurrence of a species with habitat in
. . . (“Lives in . . .”).
Observations and interpretations of ecological interactions extend back to the
origins of science and have early Greek origins (Egerton 2001). However it is not
until the nineteenth century that ecology would be recognized as an own scientific
discipline. In those days, humans already interfered with many ecosystems, but
remained largely excluded as subjects of ecological thinking and experimentation
(Alberti et al. 2003).
The first urban habitats developed before and during the Neolithic Revolution
when the domestication of various types of plants and animals started to transform
nomadic hunter-gatherer groups into sedentary societies based in permanent built-up
settlements. The impact of man on ecosystems increased and other kinds of humaninduced habitats evolved, often at the costs of forests (Roberts et al. 2018). However,
from the development of the earliest fortresses and cities during the Neolithic
Revolution until the Industrial Revolution, there was a fairly stable equilibrium.
On the one hand there was a relative large human population in a rural context of
semi-natural and natural habitats, living mainly on subsistence farming. On the other
hand there were small populations centered in relatively safe villages and towns,
living on jobs, trade, and taxes. Small markets, tiny family businesses, administration, an occasional garrison, symbolizing the centre of power, provided jobs and
order (e.g. Davis 1955; Grauman 1977). Synanthropic plants and animals developed
in the evolving urban habitats (Sukopp 2002; Wittig 2004). Non-indigenous plant
species introduced in Europe prior to AD 1500 are named archaeophytes, while post
AD 1500 alien species are named neophytes. Native species that could invade the
new habitats, including the urban ones, are known as apophytes.
The year AD 1500 marks the discovery of the New World and the Columbian
Exchange that caused the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases etc. which
invaded the natural, semi-natural and man-made habitats (Nunn and Quian 2010). In
the pre-industrial era, limitations on technology and on the availability of food
supplies, coupled with widespread diseases in urban settlements, imposed a natural
ceiling on urban population growth, and hence on urbanisation (Fox 2012). An
example is the balance between economy and ecology of heathlands in Europe
(Diemont et al. 2013). The heathland-based economy and the associated habitats
endured for some 5000 years, until in the nineteenth century a significant increase in
jobs in urban areas (as a result of technological innovations) put pressure on
agricultural productivity. Then, new land-use forms started changing the countryside
(Haaland et al. 2004). Larger settlements developed, especially in areas with a range
of habitats that provided opportunities for a variety of land uses (Luck 2007). It is
therefore not surprising that many towns and cities were originally situated in areas
with a relatively high biodiversity (Kuhn et al. 2004; Ives et al. 2016). The economy
in such areas was originally largely based on the opportunities offered by the
topographical location and by the surrounding ecosystem (e.g. Jansen et al. 2013).
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J. Jansen and C. Hobohm
community is also called its habitat, (see for instance the Habitats Directive of the
European Union). The widespread use of the term habitat in biology goes back to
Linnaeus (1753) who in Latin described the occurrence of a species with habitat in
. . . (“Lives in . . .”).
Observations and interpretations of ecological interactions extend back to the
origins of science and have early Greek origins (Egerton 2001). However it is not
until the nineteenth century that ecology would be recognized as an own scientific
discipline. In those days, humans already interfered with many ecosystems, but
remained largely excluded as subjects of ecological thinking and experimentation
(Alberti et al. 2003).
The first urban habitats developed before and during the Neolithic Revolution
when the domestication of various types of plants and animals started to transform
nomadic hunter-gatherer groups into sedentary societies based in permanent built-up
settlements. The impact of man on ecosystems increased and other kinds of humaninduced habitats evolved, often at the costs of forests (Roberts et al. 2018). However,
from the development of the earliest fortresses and cities during the Neolithic
Revolution until the Industrial Revolution, there was a fairly stable equilibrium.
On the one hand there was a relative large human population in a rural context of
semi-natural and natural habitats, living mainly on subsistence farming. On the other
hand there were small populations centered in relatively safe villages and towns,
living on jobs, trade, and taxes. Small markets, tiny family businesses, administration, an occasional garrison, symbolizing the centre of power, provided jobs and
order (e.g. Davis 1955; Grauman 1977). Synanthropic plants and animals developed
in the evolving urban habitats (Sukopp 2002; Wittig 2004). Non-indigenous plant
species introduced in Europe prior to AD 1500 are named archaeophytes, while post
AD 1500 alien species are named neophytes. Native species that could invade the
new habitats, including the urban ones, are known as apophytes.
The year AD 1500 marks the discovery of the New World and the Columbian
Exchange that caused the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases etc. which
invaded the natural, semi-natural and man-made habitats (Nunn and Quian 2010). In
the pre-industrial era, limitations on technology and on the availability of food
supplies, coupled with widespread diseases in urban settlements, imposed a natural
ceiling on urban population growth, and hence on urbanisation (Fox 2012). An
example is the balance between economy and ecology of heathlands in Europe
(Diemont et al. 2013). The heathland-based economy and the associated habitats
endured for some 5000 years, until in the nineteenth century a significant increase in
jobs in urban areas (as a result of technological innovations) put pressure on
agricultural productivity. Then, new land-use forms started changing the countryside
(Haaland et al. 2004). Larger settlements developed, especially in areas with a range
of habitats that provided opportunities for a variety of land uses (Luck 2007). It is
therefore not surprising that many towns and cities were originally situated in areas
with a relatively high biodiversity (Kuhn et al. 2004; Ives et al. 2016). The economy
in such areas was originally largely based on the opportunities offered by the
topographical location and by the surrounding ecosystem (e.g. Jansen et al. 2013).
428
J. Jansen and C. Hobohm