In those days, citizens were often entangled with the life that surrounded them
(Rupprecht 2017). They interacted with nature, although alienation from nature
had already been noticed. Since the Middle Ages, a utilitarian culture and land use
had become rather dominant. The idea that wildlife had an intrinsic value was simply
absent during this period. In the nineteenth century, Romanticism—the discovery of
the landscape, admired and pictured by man (Westhoff 1983)—arose as counter
current in response to the Age of Enlightenment.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain by the late eighteenth
century, the ratio rural-urban population started changing as people moved from
the countryside to the urban areas that offered jobs. In spite of the decrease in rural
population, the loss of semi-natural ecosystems in the countryside accelerated
because of intensification of agriculture (monocultures) and forestry (monocultures,
forest fires), On the other hand, abandonment of the countryside gave opportunities
for nature development (ELO 2009). At the time of the Industrial Revolution, the
number of neophytes increased as a result of the expanded traffic and trade through
modes such as railways and steam ships (Wittig 2004). The next phase was the fast
growth of cities in the twentieth century, which triggered an even larger influx of
neophytes (Wittig 2004). At present the average flora of cities in Central Europe
consists of 60% native species, 15% archaeophytes, and 25% neophytes (Pyšek
1998).
The percentage of the population living in urban areas around 1800 is estimated at
21% for Western Europe, clearly higher than, for example, 4% in Central-Europe,
6% in USA and 7% in the world. These percentages increased respectively to 41%,
19%, 40% and 16% in 1900; to 61%, 35%, 64% and 29% in 1950, and to 75%, 60%,
79% and 47% in 2000 (Klein Goldewijk et al. 2010). In 2018, the most urbanised
regions included Northern America (82%), Latin America and the Caribbean (81%),
Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%). Today 55% of the world’s population lives in
urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 68% by 2050 (United
Nations 2018). A considerable part, often including megacities and conurbations,
is located in coastal zones (Small and Nicholls 2003; Von Glasow et al. 2013).
However, it is expected that most growth will take place in small and medium-sized
cities (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2012).
Urbanisation represents a human ecological transformation which implies a huge
shift in the spatial and material relationships of humans with the rural and natural
world (Rees and Wackernagel 1996). Also, urbanisation contributes to the loss of the
world’s biodiversity and the homogenisation of its biota (Aronson et al. 2014).
This is intensified by the choices which people make for planting in gardens and
parks. The choices are motivated by visual impact or ease of management, and have
typically favoured horticultural cultivars over native species. These actions can
diminish the value of urban green spaces for biodiversity as they become
characterised by a small range of introduced, frequently non-native species that
can tolerate the anthropogenic conditions (McKinney 2006, 2008). These practices
have created urban ecosystems which are structurally and functionally similar across
bioregions, and which are distinct from local native ecosystems, but which are
similar to each other, a phenomenon called urban biotic homogenisation (McKinney
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
429
(Rupprecht 2017). They interacted with nature, although alienation from nature
had already been noticed. Since the Middle Ages, a utilitarian culture and land use
had become rather dominant. The idea that wildlife had an intrinsic value was simply
absent during this period. In the nineteenth century, Romanticism—the discovery of
the landscape, admired and pictured by man (Westhoff 1983)—arose as counter
current in response to the Age of Enlightenment.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain by the late eighteenth
century, the ratio rural-urban population started changing as people moved from
the countryside to the urban areas that offered jobs. In spite of the decrease in rural
population, the loss of semi-natural ecosystems in the countryside accelerated
because of intensification of agriculture (monocultures) and forestry (monocultures,
forest fires), On the other hand, abandonment of the countryside gave opportunities
for nature development (ELO 2009). At the time of the Industrial Revolution, the
number of neophytes increased as a result of the expanded traffic and trade through
modes such as railways and steam ships (Wittig 2004). The next phase was the fast
growth of cities in the twentieth century, which triggered an even larger influx of
neophytes (Wittig 2004). At present the average flora of cities in Central Europe
consists of 60% native species, 15% archaeophytes, and 25% neophytes (Pyšek
1998).
The percentage of the population living in urban areas around 1800 is estimated at
21% for Western Europe, clearly higher than, for example, 4% in Central-Europe,
6% in USA and 7% in the world. These percentages increased respectively to 41%,
19%, 40% and 16% in 1900; to 61%, 35%, 64% and 29% in 1950, and to 75%, 60%,
79% and 47% in 2000 (Klein Goldewijk et al. 2010). In 2018, the most urbanised
regions included Northern America (82%), Latin America and the Caribbean (81%),
Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%). Today 55% of the world’s population lives in
urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 68% by 2050 (United
Nations 2018). A considerable part, often including megacities and conurbations,
is located in coastal zones (Small and Nicholls 2003; Von Glasow et al. 2013).
However, it is expected that most growth will take place in small and medium-sized
cities (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2012).
Urbanisation represents a human ecological transformation which implies a huge
shift in the spatial and material relationships of humans with the rural and natural
world (Rees and Wackernagel 1996). Also, urbanisation contributes to the loss of the
world’s biodiversity and the homogenisation of its biota (Aronson et al. 2014).
This is intensified by the choices which people make for planting in gardens and
parks. The choices are motivated by visual impact or ease of management, and have
typically favoured horticultural cultivars over native species. These actions can
diminish the value of urban green spaces for biodiversity as they become
characterised by a small range of introduced, frequently non-native species that
can tolerate the anthropogenic conditions (McKinney 2006, 2008). These practices
have created urban ecosystems which are structurally and functionally similar across
bioregions, and which are distinct from local native ecosystems, but which are
similar to each other, a phenomenon called urban biotic homogenisation (McKinney
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
429