original ecosystem can be replaced by synanthropes including less sensitive native
species (apophytes) or alien (anthropophytes) both in urban areas and in rural areas
(Early et al. 2016).
Spontaneous nature in the city is of great consequence for the preservation of
niches for native wildlife, even though non-natives are often in the majority.
Spontaneous natural processes in the city are important also in adaptation and
speciation, a sort of evolution in the urban jungle (Schilthuizen 2017; Thomas
2017). Not being subjected to the intensive levels of management and pesticides
used on farmland, urban areas can support locally, nationally and even internationally important biodiversity that is struggling to persist in the wider countryside
(Connop and Nash 2018). Of even greater importance, in our view, is the opportunity for the city dweller to interact with free nature as people did in the very distant
past. For in this way, people can come to support policies for stopping the decline of
biodiversity in the countryside. Additional green areas in cities created for leisure
such as parks and botanical gardens could better focus on accommodating indigenous species with an additional emphasis on endemic species from the region
(wildlife parks, nature gardens). Native plants can support native insect and fungal
populations better than many ornamental plant species.
Cities are breeding grounds for innovation and urban residents often have much
influence on political and socio-economic issues, as cities host most of the administration, markets, capital, culture and consumers. On the other hand cities also
destroy nature. In addition, cities depend on resources and ecological services
from distant ecosystems, and this has a huge impact, with the result that very little
is left of Earth’s remaining wilderness both terrestrial and marine.
The surface of the Earth can be subdivided into ecoregions. City authorities could
be made responsible for the biodiversity of the ecoregions in which they are located.
They could be given the task to stop the decline of biodiversity, not only within their
administrative boundaries but also in more distant areas within the entire ecoregion.
Cities could be a driving force in stimulating the experience of nature not only with
ornamental plants in parks or trees along streets as the usual practice is, but also by
offering natural beauty in the vicinity, by displaying natural vegetation in botanical
gardens and parks, by allowing spontaneous plant dispersal in public places under
specified conditions, also by promoting nature education and research, and ultimately by setting rules for nature protection.
This contribution offers a few examples of projects in a few cities throughout the
world, which illustrate promising steps.
2 Urbanisation and Its Consequences for Plant Ecology
Habitat is generally defined as the environment in which a species lives. It is
characterized by both physical and biological features. At first the concept of habitat
was used only for a single species (the autecological approach), while biotope was
used for an assemblage of plants and animals (synecological approach). Today,
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
427
species (apophytes) or alien (anthropophytes) both in urban areas and in rural areas
(Early et al. 2016).
Spontaneous nature in the city is of great consequence for the preservation of
niches for native wildlife, even though non-natives are often in the majority.
Spontaneous natural processes in the city are important also in adaptation and
speciation, a sort of evolution in the urban jungle (Schilthuizen 2017; Thomas
2017). Not being subjected to the intensive levels of management and pesticides
used on farmland, urban areas can support locally, nationally and even internationally important biodiversity that is struggling to persist in the wider countryside
(Connop and Nash 2018). Of even greater importance, in our view, is the opportunity for the city dweller to interact with free nature as people did in the very distant
past. For in this way, people can come to support policies for stopping the decline of
biodiversity in the countryside. Additional green areas in cities created for leisure
such as parks and botanical gardens could better focus on accommodating indigenous species with an additional emphasis on endemic species from the region
(wildlife parks, nature gardens). Native plants can support native insect and fungal
populations better than many ornamental plant species.
Cities are breeding grounds for innovation and urban residents often have much
influence on political and socio-economic issues, as cities host most of the administration, markets, capital, culture and consumers. On the other hand cities also
destroy nature. In addition, cities depend on resources and ecological services
from distant ecosystems, and this has a huge impact, with the result that very little
is left of Earth’s remaining wilderness both terrestrial and marine.
The surface of the Earth can be subdivided into ecoregions. City authorities could
be made responsible for the biodiversity of the ecoregions in which they are located.
They could be given the task to stop the decline of biodiversity, not only within their
administrative boundaries but also in more distant areas within the entire ecoregion.
Cities could be a driving force in stimulating the experience of nature not only with
ornamental plants in parks or trees along streets as the usual practice is, but also by
offering natural beauty in the vicinity, by displaying natural vegetation in botanical
gardens and parks, by allowing spontaneous plant dispersal in public places under
specified conditions, also by promoting nature education and research, and ultimately by setting rules for nature protection.
This contribution offers a few examples of projects in a few cities throughout the
world, which illustrate promising steps.
2 Urbanisation and Its Consequences for Plant Ecology
Habitat is generally defined as the environment in which a species lives. It is
characterized by both physical and biological features. At first the concept of habitat
was used only for a single species (the autecological approach), while biotope was
used for an assemblage of plants and animals (synecological approach). Today,
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
427