Recent frameworks of environmental indicator systems are e.g. the PressureState-Response model of the OECD and the DPSIR model (drivers, pressures, state,
impact, response) of the European Environment Agency (Smeets and Wetering
1999). Appropriate ecological indicators can tell much about ecological conditions
such as water quality, air pollution or nutrient availability of soils. Environmental
key indicators according to the OECD (OECD 2008) are related to climate change,
ozone layer, air quality, waste generation, freshwater quality, freshwater resources,
forest resources, fish resources, energy resources, and biodiversity.
An optimal indicator should
1. easily be calculated, and the user should know how it is calculated or measured
(simplicity),
2. the indication should be explicit (accuracy),
3. and discover a relationship which was not visible before (information). For
example, we do not need presence-absence data of bird species like a curlew as
bioindicator for wetlands or a vascular plant indicating urbanity as it is obviously
easier to look at the type of a landscape or settlement than to identify a bird or
vascular plant species with help of a scientific book, binoculars or a magnifying
glass.
Furthermore,
4. the indicator should help to evaluate trends and to decide for action (announcement), and last but not least
5. the indication/measurement should be cost-efficient (efficiency).
In the following, the meaning of various environmental indicators with respect to
what they can tell about ecosystem functions, the pressure on biodiversity or
threatened species, and the success of nature conservation programmes will be
discussed. This contribution reviews, compares and evaluates different concepts,
strategies and measures to protect the species diversity on Earth under changing
environmental conditions and increasing pressure on almost all natural and seminatural ecosystems. There is an important feedback and interplay between the
development and improvement of environmental indicators and measures related
to ecosystems and biota.
2 Characteristics and Application of Environmental
Indicators
Table 1 represents a selection of environmental indicators with a moderate to strong
focus on the state and change of the biosphere, ecosystem and/or biodiversity. Some
of the indicators are simple and related to a single factor such as mean temperature or
sea level, others are a combination of two or more factors (like most of the
Environmental Indicators and Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
161
impact, response) of the European Environment Agency (Smeets and Wetering
1999). Appropriate ecological indicators can tell much about ecological conditions
such as water quality, air pollution or nutrient availability of soils. Environmental
key indicators according to the OECD (OECD 2008) are related to climate change,
ozone layer, air quality, waste generation, freshwater quality, freshwater resources,
forest resources, fish resources, energy resources, and biodiversity.
An optimal indicator should
1. easily be calculated, and the user should know how it is calculated or measured
(simplicity),
2. the indication should be explicit (accuracy),
3. and discover a relationship which was not visible before (information). For
example, we do not need presence-absence data of bird species like a curlew as
bioindicator for wetlands or a vascular plant indicating urbanity as it is obviously
easier to look at the type of a landscape or settlement than to identify a bird or
vascular plant species with help of a scientific book, binoculars or a magnifying
glass.
Furthermore,
4. the indicator should help to evaluate trends and to decide for action (announcement), and last but not least
5. the indication/measurement should be cost-efficient (efficiency).
In the following, the meaning of various environmental indicators with respect to
what they can tell about ecosystem functions, the pressure on biodiversity or
threatened species, and the success of nature conservation programmes will be
discussed. This contribution reviews, compares and evaluates different concepts,
strategies and measures to protect the species diversity on Earth under changing
environmental conditions and increasing pressure on almost all natural and seminatural ecosystems. There is an important feedback and interplay between the
development and improvement of environmental indicators and measures related
to ecosystems and biota.
2 Characteristics and Application of Environmental
Indicators
Table 1 represents a selection of environmental indicators with a moderate to strong
focus on the state and change of the biosphere, ecosystem and/or biodiversity. Some
of the indicators are simple and related to a single factor such as mean temperature or
sea level, others are a combination of two or more factors (like most of the
Environmental Indicators and Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
161