2.3.1.3 Caustic Alkaline Solution...........................24
2.3.2 Thermal Processes .....................................................24
2.3.2.1 Steam Stimulation.......................................24
2.3.2.2 Hot Water Injection.....................................25
2.3.2.3 In Situ Combustion .....................................25
2.4 Role of Water in the Fracking Process ....................................25
2.5 Water Requirement for Mining, Preparation, and
Extraction of Solid Fuels ......................................................... 27
2.5.1 Oil Shale Industry ...................................................... 27
2.5.2 Tar Sand and Heavy Oil Industries ............................ 27
2.5.3 Uranium Mining and Leaching..................................28
2.5.4 Coal Mining and Preparation..................................... 29
References .......................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3 Energy Recovery by Benign Hydrothermal Processes ...................... 33
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 33
3.2 Role of Water in Production of Nuclear Power ....................... 33
3.2.1 Light Water Reactor ................................................... 33
3.2.2 Boiling Water Reactor................................................34
3.2.3 Pressurized Water Reactor ......................................... 35
3.2.4 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU)............ 36
3.2.5 Graphite-Moderated, Direct Cycle
(Boiling Water) Pressure Tube Reactor...................... 37
3.2.6 Supercritical Water-Cooled Reactor........................... 37
3.3 Hydrothermal Processes for Recovery of Geothermal
Energy...................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Enhanced Geothermal Systems ................................. 41
3.3.2 Coproduction of Geothermal Electricity in Oil
and Gas Wells............................................................. 42
3.4 Role of Water in Storage of Solar Energy ............................... 43
3.5 Steam Turbine..........................................................................44
References .......................................................................................... 45
Chapter 4 Steam Gasification and Reforming Technologies .............................. 47
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 47
4.2 Mechanisms, Kinetics, and Catalysis of Steam
Gasification and Reforming..................................................... 50
4.2.1 Mechanism of Steam Gasification ............................. 50
4.2.2 Mechanism of Steam Reforming ............................... 52
4.2.3 Catalysts for Steam Gasification ................................ 53
4.2.3.1 Dolomite, Olivine, and Alkali
Metal-Based Catalysts ................................ 54
4.2.3.2 Nickel-Based Catalysts ............................... 55
vi
Contents
2.3.2 Thermal Processes .....................................................24
2.3.2.1 Steam Stimulation.......................................24
2.3.2.2 Hot Water Injection.....................................25
2.3.2.3 In Situ Combustion .....................................25
2.4 Role of Water in the Fracking Process ....................................25
2.5 Water Requirement for Mining, Preparation, and
Extraction of Solid Fuels ......................................................... 27
2.5.1 Oil Shale Industry ...................................................... 27
2.5.2 Tar Sand and Heavy Oil Industries ............................ 27
2.5.3 Uranium Mining and Leaching..................................28
2.5.4 Coal Mining and Preparation..................................... 29
References .......................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3 Energy Recovery by Benign Hydrothermal Processes ...................... 33
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 33
3.2 Role of Water in Production of Nuclear Power ....................... 33
3.2.1 Light Water Reactor ................................................... 33
3.2.2 Boiling Water Reactor................................................34
3.2.3 Pressurized Water Reactor ......................................... 35
3.2.4 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU)............ 36
3.2.5 Graphite-Moderated, Direct Cycle
(Boiling Water) Pressure Tube Reactor...................... 37
3.2.6 Supercritical Water-Cooled Reactor........................... 37
3.3 Hydrothermal Processes for Recovery of Geothermal
Energy...................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Enhanced Geothermal Systems ................................. 41
3.3.2 Coproduction of Geothermal Electricity in Oil
and Gas Wells............................................................. 42
3.4 Role of Water in Storage of Solar Energy ............................... 43
3.5 Steam Turbine..........................................................................44
References .......................................................................................... 45
Chapter 4 Steam Gasification and Reforming Technologies .............................. 47
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 47
4.2 Mechanisms, Kinetics, and Catalysis of Steam
Gasification and Reforming..................................................... 50
4.2.1 Mechanism of Steam Gasification ............................. 50
4.2.2 Mechanism of Steam Reforming ............................... 52
4.2.3 Catalysts for Steam Gasification ................................ 53
4.2.3.1 Dolomite, Olivine, and Alkali
Metal-Based Catalysts ................................ 54
4.2.3.2 Nickel-Based Catalysts ............................... 55
vi
Contents