Index
401
reactors, 81–86
fixed-bed gasifiers, 81–82
molten salt, 84–86, 85f
plasma and free radical gasifiers, 84
suspended bed, 82–84
underground, 96–98, 97f
Steam–iron process, 98
Steam reforming
catalysts, 55–56
considerations, 87
disadvantages, 49–50
feedstock effects on product distribution, 70–81
biomass, 77–78
bio-oil, 80–81
carbon and carbon monoxide, 79–80
ethanol, 70–72
glycerol, 76–77
liquid hydrocarbons, 75–76
methanol, 72–75
mixed feedstock, 78–79
mechanism, 52–53
novel, 89–99
microwave-assisted, 95
other processes, 98–99
solar reforming. see Solar reforming
(SOLREF)
reactors, 87–89
Steam stimulation, 24–25
Steam turbines, 44
Stillage, 236, 241
Stirrer, 220–221
STOMP-HYD simulation, 345–346
Supercritical water (SCW), 261
advantages, 261–262
and ambient, comparison, 264t
chemical synthesis, role in, 265–266
decomposition/extraction of materials, 268–272
functions, 261
gasification, 272–277
hydrothermal process
glycerol pathways, transformation, 271f
pressure–temperature phase diagram, 263f
oxidation, 266–268
catalysts, 268
two-stage approach, 267
properties, 262–264
reforming, 277–282
biomass, 279
drawbacks, 283
ethanol, 281–282
ethylene glycol, 280
glycerol, 279–280
liquid fuels, 277–278
methanol, 280–281
sawdust, 274t
tri-reforming, 283–285
Supercritical water-cooled reactors, 37
Surfactant–polymer solution, 23–24
Suspended bed reactors
circulating fluidized bed, 83–84
entrained, 84
fluidized, 82–83
Syngas, 47, 172
production, open-loop solar, 94
Synthetic fuel/synfuels, 1
t
Tar sands and heavy oil industry, 27–28
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 247
Tertiary oil recovery methods, 18
Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 191–192, 195
Thermochemical water splitting cycles
(TCWSCs)
copper–chlorine (Cu–Cl), 315–316
advantages, 315–316
steps, 316
copper/sulfate, 316–319
hydrogen production, routes
metal oxide–redox reactions, 309f
monolithic dual-chamber, 311f
solar, 296f
metal oxides, carbothermal reductions, 312
mixed iron oxide, 311–312
S–I, 314–315
SnO/SnO 2 , 311
sulfur family, 312–314
two-/three-/four-step, 316, 317t–318t
UT-3, 309–310
Westinghouse process, 315
Zn/ZnO, 310–311, 310f
Tidal barrage, 368, 379, 390
Tidal stream, 368
generator, 379, 380f
turbines, 389
Tight gas, 19
Tri-reforming, 56, 59–60
reactions, 283
in supercritical water, 283–285
Turnover frequency (TOF), 52, 73
U
Ultra clean coal (UCC), 143, 145
Unmodified cornstarch, 239
Uranium mining and leaching, 28–29
US Geological Survey (USGS), 330, 334
V
Virent Inc., 173–178
Volatile fatty acid (VFA), 209–210, 215, 221, 223
401
reactors, 81–86
fixed-bed gasifiers, 81–82
molten salt, 84–86, 85f
plasma and free radical gasifiers, 84
suspended bed, 82–84
underground, 96–98, 97f
Steam–iron process, 98
Steam reforming
catalysts, 55–56
considerations, 87
disadvantages, 49–50
feedstock effects on product distribution, 70–81
biomass, 77–78
bio-oil, 80–81
carbon and carbon monoxide, 79–80
ethanol, 70–72
glycerol, 76–77
liquid hydrocarbons, 75–76
methanol, 72–75
mixed feedstock, 78–79
mechanism, 52–53
novel, 89–99
microwave-assisted, 95
other processes, 98–99
solar reforming. see Solar reforming
(SOLREF)
reactors, 87–89
Steam stimulation, 24–25
Steam turbines, 44
Stillage, 236, 241
Stirrer, 220–221
STOMP-HYD simulation, 345–346
Supercritical water (SCW), 261
advantages, 261–262
and ambient, comparison, 264t
chemical synthesis, role in, 265–266
decomposition/extraction of materials, 268–272
functions, 261
gasification, 272–277
hydrothermal process
glycerol pathways, transformation, 271f
pressure–temperature phase diagram, 263f
oxidation, 266–268
catalysts, 268
two-stage approach, 267
properties, 262–264
reforming, 277–282
biomass, 279
drawbacks, 283
ethanol, 281–282
ethylene glycol, 280
glycerol, 279–280
liquid fuels, 277–278
methanol, 280–281
sawdust, 274t
tri-reforming, 283–285
Supercritical water-cooled reactors, 37
Surfactant–polymer solution, 23–24
Suspended bed reactors
circulating fluidized bed, 83–84
entrained, 84
fluidized, 82–83
Syngas, 47, 172
production, open-loop solar, 94
Synthetic fuel/synfuels, 1
t
Tar sands and heavy oil industry, 27–28
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 247
Tertiary oil recovery methods, 18
Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 191–192, 195
Thermochemical water splitting cycles
(TCWSCs)
copper–chlorine (Cu–Cl), 315–316
advantages, 315–316
steps, 316
copper/sulfate, 316–319
hydrogen production, routes
metal oxide–redox reactions, 309f
monolithic dual-chamber, 311f
solar, 296f
metal oxides, carbothermal reductions, 312
mixed iron oxide, 311–312
S–I, 314–315
SnO/SnO 2 , 311
sulfur family, 312–314
two-/three-/four-step, 316, 317t–318t
UT-3, 309–310
Westinghouse process, 315
Zn/ZnO, 310–311, 310f
Tidal barrage, 368, 379, 390
Tidal stream, 368
generator, 379, 380f
turbines, 389
Tight gas, 19
Tri-reforming, 56, 59–60
reactions, 283
in supercritical water, 283–285
Turnover frequency (TOF), 52, 73
U
Ultra clean coal (UCC), 143, 145
Unmodified cornstarch, 239
Uranium mining and leaching, 28–29
US Geological Survey (USGS), 330, 334
V
Virent Inc., 173–178
Volatile fatty acid (VFA), 209–210, 215, 221, 223