environments, societies, public health and consumers (Savary et al. 2012). Crop
losses owing to above-mentioned factors are direct and indirect:
Direct Losses
• Primary losses: Yield, quality, cost of control over losses, extra cost of harvesting,
grading and replanting
• Secondary losses: Contamination of sowing and planting material, soil-borne
diseases and weakening by premature defoliation of trees and perennials
Indirect Losses Agricultural farm, rural community, exporters, traders, wholesale
retailers, consumers, government and environment.
Crop losses ultimately affect the financial structure of growers, distributors,
wholesalers, transporters, retailers, food processors and others (Fig. 16.5). Economic
loss basically is the reduction in economic benefits due to crop damage, the costs of
labour, materials and inputs for the control of pests and diseases (Cerda 2017). An
estimate of $1391 million has been incurred on the loss of crops and trees accredited
to the use of pesticides (Pimentel and Burgess 2014).
16.5.3 Effects on Animals and Human Beings
Accumulation of organic and inorganic pollutants in edible or non-edible parts of
crops and commercially important plants grown in contaminated soil may induce
clinical disorders in biological systems (of animals and human beings) through food
chain contamination (Li et al. 2018). Biological systems have no specific mechanism
for the elimination of such pollutants from body parts; however, such xenobiotic
after entering the body undergoes bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Tangahu
et al. 2011). Organic and inorganic pollutants beyond their threshold levels for living
beings (FAO/WHO 2001) are linked to a wide range of ailments (Table 16.2).
16.6 Advanced Technologies and Cost Incurred in Management
of Wastes
According to the World Bank (2018), an estimate of 2.01 BT of total solid waste
generation has been found in 2016 with a footprint of 0.74 kg per capita per day.
Whereas in India, it ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 kg per capita per day with about
42 million tonnes (MT) of total solid wastes produced every year and likely to
cross 260 MT in 2047 (World Bank 2018). Proper waste management has a lot of
benefits such as reducing global warming and emission of noxious gases (methane,
CH 4 ; carbon dioxide, CO 2 ; oxides of nitrogen, NO x, and sulphur, SO x ; hydrogen
peroxide, H 2 O 2 and ammonia, NH 3 ), saving carbon footprint and maintaining the
environment clean as well as pollution-free (Daniel and Perinaz 2012; Hoornweg
and Bhada-Tata 2012). To manage the waste generated from agricultural, municipal,
industrial and other sectors, several conventional and integrated advanced
16 Causes, Effects and Sustainable Approaches to Remediate Contaminated Soil
467
losses owing to above-mentioned factors are direct and indirect:
Direct Losses
• Primary losses: Yield, quality, cost of control over losses, extra cost of harvesting,
grading and replanting
• Secondary losses: Contamination of sowing and planting material, soil-borne
diseases and weakening by premature defoliation of trees and perennials
Indirect Losses Agricultural farm, rural community, exporters, traders, wholesale
retailers, consumers, government and environment.
Crop losses ultimately affect the financial structure of growers, distributors,
wholesalers, transporters, retailers, food processors and others (Fig. 16.5). Economic
loss basically is the reduction in economic benefits due to crop damage, the costs of
labour, materials and inputs for the control of pests and diseases (Cerda 2017). An
estimate of $1391 million has been incurred on the loss of crops and trees accredited
to the use of pesticides (Pimentel and Burgess 2014).
16.5.3 Effects on Animals and Human Beings
Accumulation of organic and inorganic pollutants in edible or non-edible parts of
crops and commercially important plants grown in contaminated soil may induce
clinical disorders in biological systems (of animals and human beings) through food
chain contamination (Li et al. 2018). Biological systems have no specific mechanism
for the elimination of such pollutants from body parts; however, such xenobiotic
after entering the body undergoes bioaccumulation and biomagnification (Tangahu
et al. 2011). Organic and inorganic pollutants beyond their threshold levels for living
beings (FAO/WHO 2001) are linked to a wide range of ailments (Table 16.2).
16.6 Advanced Technologies and Cost Incurred in Management
of Wastes
According to the World Bank (2018), an estimate of 2.01 BT of total solid waste
generation has been found in 2016 with a footprint of 0.74 kg per capita per day.
Whereas in India, it ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 kg per capita per day with about
42 million tonnes (MT) of total solid wastes produced every year and likely to
cross 260 MT in 2047 (World Bank 2018). Proper waste management has a lot of
benefits such as reducing global warming and emission of noxious gases (methane,
CH 4 ; carbon dioxide, CO 2 ; oxides of nitrogen, NO x, and sulphur, SO x ; hydrogen
peroxide, H 2 O 2 and ammonia, NH 3 ), saving carbon footprint and maintaining the
environment clean as well as pollution-free (Daniel and Perinaz 2012; Hoornweg
and Bhada-Tata 2012). To manage the waste generated from agricultural, municipal,
industrial and other sectors, several conventional and integrated advanced
16 Causes, Effects and Sustainable Approaches to Remediate Contaminated Soil
467