important value index (IVI) of sensitive species was low while that of tolerant
species was higher and was accredited to altered soil properties.
According to Pandey et al. (2014), total number of plant species at Jharia coalfield
(polluted site) was less when compared to the Central Institute of Mining and Fuel
Research (reference site). At Jharia coalfield, total number of woody species was less
than total number of herbaceous species. Multivariate analysis showed that number
of woody species at study site was mainly governed by less sulphate and phosphorous contents in soil, whereas contaminated site with low total nitrogen and organic
carbon contents were the prime factors governing the richness and IVI of herbaceous
species.
A study by Vijayan (2011) showed that long-term spraying of endosulfan at
eleven different panchayats in Kasargod district of Kerala reduced the plant biodiversity by 40–70% when compared to the site without endosulfan treatment.
Besides, native species of the area such as Hopea ponga, Cinnamomum
malabatrum, Ixora polyantha, Premna serratifolia, Syzygium caryophyllatum and
Embelia cheriyan-kottan disappeared due to the adverse effects of organic pollutant
on soil properties (Vijayan 2011).
Ensuing the rapid increase in global population, an estimate of 87% more food
crops such as rice, wheat, soya bean, maize, etc. will be required to meet their
demand for food by 2050 (Kromdijk and Long 2016). However, several restraints
including abiotic and biotic stresses are likely to disrupt food security in near future,
following the fact that increasing natural and anthropogenic activities are the major
threats to food demand and security due to increasing severity of soil pollution on
global scale (Riaz et al. 2019). Agricultural dependence on wastewater irrigation,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, weedicides and rapid development of
industries have increased the amount of toxic metal(loid)s and organic pollutants in
cultivable land resulting in detrimental effects on soil-plant environment system
(Bansiwal and Maheshvari 2018). In fact, persisting pollutants causes loss of soil
productivity and also reduces crop yield. This challenge is adversely affecting the
social and economic conditions of the world.
16.5.2.2 Crop Loss Due to Soil Pollution
Crop losses are the major threat to the wellbeing of rural families, economy of traders
and governments as well as to food security worldwide (Avelino et al. 2015; Savary
and Willocquet 2014). For instance, poor soil quality due to pollution-caused yield
loss of annual crops such as rice ranged from 24 to 41% in Asia (Savary et al. 2000),
potatoes from 5 to 96% in France (Rakotonindraina et al. 2012) and cotton up to
100% in Thailand (Castella et al. 2005). Yield loss of perennial crops such as apple
and other stone fruits reached up to 5% in the Netherlands (Van Leeuwen et al.
2000), and for coffee, it ranged from 13 to 45% in Brazil (Barbosa et al. 2004). Crop
losses due to pest attack, diseases, soil infertility and climate change for major food
and cash crops (wheat, rice, maize, barley, soybeans, potatoes, coffee and cotton)
were estimated between 20 and 40% at both country and regional levels in different
continents (Oerke 2006; Cooke 2006). The phrase “losses between 20 and 40%”
inadequately reflects the true costs of crop losses to farmers, fabrics, economic,
466
M. Gautam et al.
species was higher and was accredited to altered soil properties.
According to Pandey et al. (2014), total number of plant species at Jharia coalfield
(polluted site) was less when compared to the Central Institute of Mining and Fuel
Research (reference site). At Jharia coalfield, total number of woody species was less
than total number of herbaceous species. Multivariate analysis showed that number
of woody species at study site was mainly governed by less sulphate and phosphorous contents in soil, whereas contaminated site with low total nitrogen and organic
carbon contents were the prime factors governing the richness and IVI of herbaceous
species.
A study by Vijayan (2011) showed that long-term spraying of endosulfan at
eleven different panchayats in Kasargod district of Kerala reduced the plant biodiversity by 40–70% when compared to the site without endosulfan treatment.
Besides, native species of the area such as Hopea ponga, Cinnamomum
malabatrum, Ixora polyantha, Premna serratifolia, Syzygium caryophyllatum and
Embelia cheriyan-kottan disappeared due to the adverse effects of organic pollutant
on soil properties (Vijayan 2011).
Ensuing the rapid increase in global population, an estimate of 87% more food
crops such as rice, wheat, soya bean, maize, etc. will be required to meet their
demand for food by 2050 (Kromdijk and Long 2016). However, several restraints
including abiotic and biotic stresses are likely to disrupt food security in near future,
following the fact that increasing natural and anthropogenic activities are the major
threats to food demand and security due to increasing severity of soil pollution on
global scale (Riaz et al. 2019). Agricultural dependence on wastewater irrigation,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, weedicides and rapid development of
industries have increased the amount of toxic metal(loid)s and organic pollutants in
cultivable land resulting in detrimental effects on soil-plant environment system
(Bansiwal and Maheshvari 2018). In fact, persisting pollutants causes loss of soil
productivity and also reduces crop yield. This challenge is adversely affecting the
social and economic conditions of the world.
16.5.2.2 Crop Loss Due to Soil Pollution
Crop losses are the major threat to the wellbeing of rural families, economy of traders
and governments as well as to food security worldwide (Avelino et al. 2015; Savary
and Willocquet 2014). For instance, poor soil quality due to pollution-caused yield
loss of annual crops such as rice ranged from 24 to 41% in Asia (Savary et al. 2000),
potatoes from 5 to 96% in France (Rakotonindraina et al. 2012) and cotton up to
100% in Thailand (Castella et al. 2005). Yield loss of perennial crops such as apple
and other stone fruits reached up to 5% in the Netherlands (Van Leeuwen et al.
2000), and for coffee, it ranged from 13 to 45% in Brazil (Barbosa et al. 2004). Crop
losses due to pest attack, diseases, soil infertility and climate change for major food
and cash crops (wheat, rice, maize, barley, soybeans, potatoes, coffee and cotton)
were estimated between 20 and 40% at both country and regional levels in different
continents (Oerke 2006; Cooke 2006). The phrase “losses between 20 and 40%”
inadequately reflects the true costs of crop losses to farmers, fabrics, economic,
466
M. Gautam et al.