the primary source for bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Kumar et al. (2001)
reported the presence of dioxins and furans in Ganges River dolphins and fish in
India. Recently, surface sediments of rivers in Russia (the Neva River and the
Eastern Gulf of Finland), Uruguay (Uruguay River) and Argentina (Gualeguaychú
River) reported the presence of dioxins and furans (Metelkova et al. 2019; Matta
2018). The concentration levels of dioxins/furans in egg tissues of two species of
salmon in Ontario lake are significantly higher than that of the levels determined by
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (Garner and Pagano 2019).
14.4.3 Dioxin and Furan Contamination in the Air
Incineration processes, combustion processes and several natural methods contribute
to the dioxin and furan content in the atmosphere of all countries. Until 1990, the
standard investigation was not carried out to estimate the toxic chemicals such as
dioxins and furans in the atmosphere. Thus, it led to an outbreak of the maximum
amount of chemicals in the atmosphere during that decade. Rahman et al. (2014)
reported dioxin and furan contamination in ambient air at urban residential areas in
Seoul, Korea. An industrial park in China (Tibet–Qinghai Plateau) reported being
the source for dioxin/furan and dioxin-like compound pollution in the atmosphere
(Hu et al. 2019).
14.5 Regulations
Foreseen, the dangerous effects of dioxins and furans, United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) jumped into action to frame a strong regulatory
framework called the “Dioxin Reassessment” and was reviewed by EPA’s science
advisory board. A strong regulation was framed to minimize the fatal impact of
dioxins and furans in the environment as well as humans. The ultimate aim of the
regulatory activities is to reduce the release of dioxins/furans into the environment
from incinerator waste. Dioxins/furans are not produced in an intentional way for
commercial activities or for any other industrial purpose, the key problem for
developing guidelines and regulatory activities. Human exposure to dioxins/furans
is through the food chain, and thus, regulatory actions must ensure ways to minimize
the impact on the human food chain. Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT) was introduced by the USEPA in September 1999 for several contamination sources such as cement kilns, incinerators and combustion sources, to adopt this
technology within their premises. Table 14.4 represents the Interim MACT
Standards for Combustors in the United States (EPA 1999). POPs that are regulated
through MACT were lead, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, carbon monoxide, chromium, hydrocarbons and majorly dioxins and furans. Table 14.5 represents the
international environmental standards for dioxins and furans from different sources.
14 Biological Implications of Dioxins/Furans Bioaccumulation in Ecosystems
403
reported the presence of dioxins and furans in Ganges River dolphins and fish in
India. Recently, surface sediments of rivers in Russia (the Neva River and the
Eastern Gulf of Finland), Uruguay (Uruguay River) and Argentina (Gualeguaychú
River) reported the presence of dioxins and furans (Metelkova et al. 2019; Matta
2018). The concentration levels of dioxins/furans in egg tissues of two species of
salmon in Ontario lake are significantly higher than that of the levels determined by
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (Garner and Pagano 2019).
14.4.3 Dioxin and Furan Contamination in the Air
Incineration processes, combustion processes and several natural methods contribute
to the dioxin and furan content in the atmosphere of all countries. Until 1990, the
standard investigation was not carried out to estimate the toxic chemicals such as
dioxins and furans in the atmosphere. Thus, it led to an outbreak of the maximum
amount of chemicals in the atmosphere during that decade. Rahman et al. (2014)
reported dioxin and furan contamination in ambient air at urban residential areas in
Seoul, Korea. An industrial park in China (Tibet–Qinghai Plateau) reported being
the source for dioxin/furan and dioxin-like compound pollution in the atmosphere
(Hu et al. 2019).
14.5 Regulations
Foreseen, the dangerous effects of dioxins and furans, United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) jumped into action to frame a strong regulatory
framework called the “Dioxin Reassessment” and was reviewed by EPA’s science
advisory board. A strong regulation was framed to minimize the fatal impact of
dioxins and furans in the environment as well as humans. The ultimate aim of the
regulatory activities is to reduce the release of dioxins/furans into the environment
from incinerator waste. Dioxins/furans are not produced in an intentional way for
commercial activities or for any other industrial purpose, the key problem for
developing guidelines and regulatory activities. Human exposure to dioxins/furans
is through the food chain, and thus, regulatory actions must ensure ways to minimize
the impact on the human food chain. Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT) was introduced by the USEPA in September 1999 for several contamination sources such as cement kilns, incinerators and combustion sources, to adopt this
technology within their premises. Table 14.4 represents the Interim MACT
Standards for Combustors in the United States (EPA 1999). POPs that are regulated
through MACT were lead, cadmium, arsenic, beryllium, carbon monoxide, chromium, hydrocarbons and majorly dioxins and furans. Table 14.5 represents the
international environmental standards for dioxins and furans from different sources.
14 Biological Implications of Dioxins/Furans Bioaccumulation in Ecosystems
403