(2%). In case of hazardous waste incineration in India, there are around 120 hazardous waste incinerators and 11 hazardous waste landfills and releases 5505.6 g TEQ/a
in air and residue. The release of dioxins and furans from medical waste incineration
in India is 272.37 g TEQ/a in air and residue. An amount of 14.6 g TEQ/a dioxins
and furans is released in Portugal from waste incineration (Quina et al. 2011). In the
United States, the annual emission in the year 2000 is less than 12 g TEQ/a dioxins
and furans which are released from municipal solid waste (Psomopoulos et al. 2009).
The release of dioxins and furans from incineration sources in the developed nation
is less than the developing nation due to abatement strategies and sophisticated
technologies to limit the release of toxic compounds into the environment. Yang
et al. (2019) investigated the effects of small-scale domestic waste incinerators in the
emission of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds which has a major impact on the
environment and human health.
14.3.2 Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic redox reaction of a substance in the presence of
oxygen. Incomplete combustion process release PCDDs/PCDFs and related
congeners to the surrounding. The generation of dioxins and furans from combustion
sources is lower than the incineration sources. The main categories of combustion
sources are cement kilns, firewood combustion, diesel vehicles, crematoria, coalfired utilities and uncontrolled fires in landfill sites. Karstensen (2008) evaluated
more than 2000 PCDDs/PCDFs from cement kiln and reported an emission level of
0.1 ng I-TEQ/m
3 indicating the well-managed and operated modern cement kilns
co-processing waste in Australia. Conesa et al. (2016) assessed the emission of
persistent dioxin and furan pollutants using a long-term monitoring system from a
cement plant. Further, an average of 0.23 ng I-TEQ (equivalent)/ton clinker of
PCDDs/PCDFs was found to emit from the plant. Rivera-Austrui et al. (2014)
demonstrated the installation of alternate fuels with clinker kiln stack significantly
reduced the emission of harmful persistent organic compounds.
In India, total dioxin released to air from cement kilns, lime production, brick
manufacturing units and glass production emits 83.64, 7.12, 50.54 and 0.03 g
TEQ/a, respectively. Crematoria used for the purposes of burial found to form and
release PCDDs/PCDFs from the cadavers containing chlorinated compounds and
precursors. From crematoria, a total of 0.56 and 0.14 g TEQ/a dioxins released to air
and residue, respectively, in India. The annual release of PCDDs/PCDFs from
disposal/landfill in India to water was 1.22 g TEQ/a, to the product 70.16 g TEQ/a
and to residue 3.44 g TEQ/a. Vehicle population in developing countries like India is
increasing tremendously; the emission of PCDDs/PCDFs into the air by transportation is 9.57 g TEQ/a, especially for diesel engines. During the uncontrolled combustion processes like forest fires, open burning of wastes and accidental fires emitted
45.48 g TEQ/a in air and land in India.
14 Biological Implications of Dioxins/Furans Bioaccumulation in Ecosystems
399
in air and residue. The release of dioxins and furans from medical waste incineration
in India is 272.37 g TEQ/a in air and residue. An amount of 14.6 g TEQ/a dioxins
and furans is released in Portugal from waste incineration (Quina et al. 2011). In the
United States, the annual emission in the year 2000 is less than 12 g TEQ/a dioxins
and furans which are released from municipal solid waste (Psomopoulos et al. 2009).
The release of dioxins and furans from incineration sources in the developed nation
is less than the developing nation due to abatement strategies and sophisticated
technologies to limit the release of toxic compounds into the environment. Yang
et al. (2019) investigated the effects of small-scale domestic waste incinerators in the
emission of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds which has a major impact on the
environment and human health.
14.3.2 Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic redox reaction of a substance in the presence of
oxygen. Incomplete combustion process release PCDDs/PCDFs and related
congeners to the surrounding. The generation of dioxins and furans from combustion
sources is lower than the incineration sources. The main categories of combustion
sources are cement kilns, firewood combustion, diesel vehicles, crematoria, coalfired utilities and uncontrolled fires in landfill sites. Karstensen (2008) evaluated
more than 2000 PCDDs/PCDFs from cement kiln and reported an emission level of
0.1 ng I-TEQ/m
3 indicating the well-managed and operated modern cement kilns
co-processing waste in Australia. Conesa et al. (2016) assessed the emission of
persistent dioxin and furan pollutants using a long-term monitoring system from a
cement plant. Further, an average of 0.23 ng I-TEQ (equivalent)/ton clinker of
PCDDs/PCDFs was found to emit from the plant. Rivera-Austrui et al. (2014)
demonstrated the installation of alternate fuels with clinker kiln stack significantly
reduced the emission of harmful persistent organic compounds.
In India, total dioxin released to air from cement kilns, lime production, brick
manufacturing units and glass production emits 83.64, 7.12, 50.54 and 0.03 g
TEQ/a, respectively. Crematoria used for the purposes of burial found to form and
release PCDDs/PCDFs from the cadavers containing chlorinated compounds and
precursors. From crematoria, a total of 0.56 and 0.14 g TEQ/a dioxins released to air
and residue, respectively, in India. The annual release of PCDDs/PCDFs from
disposal/landfill in India to water was 1.22 g TEQ/a, to the product 70.16 g TEQ/a
and to residue 3.44 g TEQ/a. Vehicle population in developing countries like India is
increasing tremendously; the emission of PCDDs/PCDFs into the air by transportation is 9.57 g TEQ/a, especially for diesel engines. During the uncontrolled combustion processes like forest fires, open burning of wastes and accidental fires emitted
45.48 g TEQ/a in air and land in India.
14 Biological Implications of Dioxins/Furans Bioaccumulation in Ecosystems
399