denser microplastics than that found in locations less influenced by marine activity.
On the other side of the Gulf of Mexico is Huatulco Bay, whose beaches exhibit a
moderate to high microplastic concentration (Retama et al. 2016). Authors reported
that microplastics in these beaches are mostly resulting from intensive tourist
activities. With respect to the western coast of North America, Desforges et al.
(2014) carried out a quantification of microplastics in the Pacific Ocean and coastal
British Columbia. The authors found that the highest concentrations were located in
Vancouver Island and nearby locations, whereas Pacific offshore waters exhibited
less number of particles per m
3 of water.
Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel (2013) found an extensive contamination of microplastics
along the coast of Chile, in South America. This area presents an average contamination of 30 items per m
2 , although in some beaches 200 items per m
2 can be
reached. The sources of origin are, as in most beaches and coastal areas, the
proximity of urban cores and economic activities such as aquaculture. Easter Island
has an abundance of microplastics higher than the rest of the Chilean coast. This is
due to the transport of particles by ocean currents, a phenomenon that generates an
accumulation zone in the center-east of the South Pacific (Abreu and Pedrotti 2019).
On the eastern coast of South America, Gomes de Carvalho and Baptista (2016) and
Olivatto et al. (2019) determined the contamination caused by microplastics in
beaches and surface water, respectively, of Guanabara Bay (Brazil). During the
summer, microplastic concentrations at the beaches ranged from 12 to 1300 items
per m
2 , whereas this concentration decreased in winter. This is caused by the great
inputs of water entering the estuary during the rainy season in summer.
In Africa (Fig. 1.15), there is a great lack of data and studies on microplastics in
coasts and marine environments, with the exception of South Africa. This country
has a wide plastic manufacturing industry, but recycling is limited and insufficient
(Verster et al. 2017). Therefore, it has a huge proportion of waste managed improperly entering the environment. Nel and Froneman (2015) carried out a study along
the southeastern coastline of South Africa and found that microplastic densities in
beach sediments were between 688 and 3308 items per m
2 , whereas in the water
column ranged from 257 to 1215 items per m
3 . Kanhai et al. (2017) estimated the
average amount of microplastics in water of the offshore of Namibia and the west
coast of Morocco, but contamination was very scarce in comparison to other areas of
the world (between 6 and 8 items per m
3 ).
1.5.2 Type, Size, and Morphology of Microplastics in Marine
Ecosystems
The main composition of microplastics present in marine environments is based on
polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, as they represent the majority of the
plastic waste generated in the world (Plastics Europe 2018). Thus, it is expected that
24
V. Godoy et al.
On the other side of the Gulf of Mexico is Huatulco Bay, whose beaches exhibit a
moderate to high microplastic concentration (Retama et al. 2016). Authors reported
that microplastics in these beaches are mostly resulting from intensive tourist
activities. With respect to the western coast of North America, Desforges et al.
(2014) carried out a quantification of microplastics in the Pacific Ocean and coastal
British Columbia. The authors found that the highest concentrations were located in
Vancouver Island and nearby locations, whereas Pacific offshore waters exhibited
less number of particles per m
3 of water.
Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel (2013) found an extensive contamination of microplastics
along the coast of Chile, in South America. This area presents an average contamination of 30 items per m
2 , although in some beaches 200 items per m
2 can be
reached. The sources of origin are, as in most beaches and coastal areas, the
proximity of urban cores and economic activities such as aquaculture. Easter Island
has an abundance of microplastics higher than the rest of the Chilean coast. This is
due to the transport of particles by ocean currents, a phenomenon that generates an
accumulation zone in the center-east of the South Pacific (Abreu and Pedrotti 2019).
On the eastern coast of South America, Gomes de Carvalho and Baptista (2016) and
Olivatto et al. (2019) determined the contamination caused by microplastics in
beaches and surface water, respectively, of Guanabara Bay (Brazil). During the
summer, microplastic concentrations at the beaches ranged from 12 to 1300 items
per m
2 , whereas this concentration decreased in winter. This is caused by the great
inputs of water entering the estuary during the rainy season in summer.
In Africa (Fig. 1.15), there is a great lack of data and studies on microplastics in
coasts and marine environments, with the exception of South Africa. This country
has a wide plastic manufacturing industry, but recycling is limited and insufficient
(Verster et al. 2017). Therefore, it has a huge proportion of waste managed improperly entering the environment. Nel and Froneman (2015) carried out a study along
the southeastern coastline of South Africa and found that microplastic densities in
beach sediments were between 688 and 3308 items per m
2 , whereas in the water
column ranged from 257 to 1215 items per m
3 . Kanhai et al. (2017) estimated the
average amount of microplastics in water of the offshore of Namibia and the west
coast of Morocco, but contamination was very scarce in comparison to other areas of
the world (between 6 and 8 items per m
3 ).
1.5.2 Type, Size, and Morphology of Microplastics in Marine
Ecosystems
The main composition of microplastics present in marine environments is based on
polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, as they represent the majority of the
plastic waste generated in the world (Plastics Europe 2018). Thus, it is expected that
24
V. Godoy et al.