The chemical structures of triclosan and triclocarban display similarities with
several toxic compounds such as bisphenol A, dioxins, polybrominated compounds,
and polychlorinated biphenyls that have already demonstrated endocrine activity in
humans (Feng et al. 2016). Estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects have been
reported in in vivo studies. For example, estrogenic effects in female rats, such as
increases in uterine weight, resulting in an earlier-onset vaginal opening, have been
reported (Jung et al. 2012) and the production of vitellogenin in male fish (Ishibashi
et al. 2004). Reduction in serum testosterone, sperm production, and gland weights
were reported as anti-androgenic activity in male rats (Rattus norvegicus) (Kumar
et al. 2009). Moreover, the production of thyroid hormones has also been postulated
as being negatively affected by personal care products (Rodríguez and Sanchez
2010).
10.2.2 Pharmaceuticals
Among emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals are an important group of substances considering their possible effect on the aquatic environment, due to their
massive use and incomplete elimination after wastewater depuration (Heberer 2002).
Hundred thousand tons of pharmaceutical substances are consumed and used per
year in the world (Zenker et al. 2014). Particularly, diclofenac and ibuprofen and an
antiepileptic drug carbamazepine were chosen for inclusion in this review due to
their high annual consumption, occurrence in aqueous systems, less 10% elimination
during conventional biological treatments, and possible effects on human and
aquatic organisms.
Ibuprofen is anti-inflammatory drug widely used as an analgesic, treatment of
fever, and rheumatic disorders (Hutt and Caldwell 1983). It is the third-most popular
drug in the world, an essential nonprescription drug, and is often used at high
therapeutic doses (600–1200 mg/d) and has a high excretion urine doses (Buser
et al. 1999). Because of its wide usage, ibuprofen has been detected worldwide in the
aquatic environment, frequently reported in rivers and streams across Japan (Nakada
et al. 2006), Europe (Buser et al. 1999), North America (Kolpin et al. 2002), Taiwan
(Lin and Tsai 2009), and North Korea (Kim et al. 2007). Ibuprofen has been
designed to inhibit the synthesis of bioactive fatty acids, inflammatory response
(e.g., prostaglandins and leukotrienes) from the second carbon groups of glycerol
synthetized by phospholipase A2, which in mammals and invertebrates function as
paracrine signalers relationship with reproduction and ion transport (Hayashi et al.
2008); (Paíga et al. 2013).
Diclofenac is a highly consumed and used in ambulatory care, as an analgesic,
antiarthritic, antirheumatic proposes. Diclofenac was developed to inhibit cyclooxygenase, both cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2, since its enzyme isoforms
are responsible for the inflammatory effects of prostaglandin production (Moncada
et al. 1976). Diclofenac is primarily metabolized to hydroxylated or methoxylated
derivatives (phase I) and after conjugated to phase II reactions in the liver, which
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
303
several toxic compounds such as bisphenol A, dioxins, polybrominated compounds,
and polychlorinated biphenyls that have already demonstrated endocrine activity in
humans (Feng et al. 2016). Estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects have been
reported in in vivo studies. For example, estrogenic effects in female rats, such as
increases in uterine weight, resulting in an earlier-onset vaginal opening, have been
reported (Jung et al. 2012) and the production of vitellogenin in male fish (Ishibashi
et al. 2004). Reduction in serum testosterone, sperm production, and gland weights
were reported as anti-androgenic activity in male rats (Rattus norvegicus) (Kumar
et al. 2009). Moreover, the production of thyroid hormones has also been postulated
as being negatively affected by personal care products (Rodríguez and Sanchez
2010).
10.2.2 Pharmaceuticals
Among emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals are an important group of substances considering their possible effect on the aquatic environment, due to their
massive use and incomplete elimination after wastewater depuration (Heberer 2002).
Hundred thousand tons of pharmaceutical substances are consumed and used per
year in the world (Zenker et al. 2014). Particularly, diclofenac and ibuprofen and an
antiepileptic drug carbamazepine were chosen for inclusion in this review due to
their high annual consumption, occurrence in aqueous systems, less 10% elimination
during conventional biological treatments, and possible effects on human and
aquatic organisms.
Ibuprofen is anti-inflammatory drug widely used as an analgesic, treatment of
fever, and rheumatic disorders (Hutt and Caldwell 1983). It is the third-most popular
drug in the world, an essential nonprescription drug, and is often used at high
therapeutic doses (600–1200 mg/d) and has a high excretion urine doses (Buser
et al. 1999). Because of its wide usage, ibuprofen has been detected worldwide in the
aquatic environment, frequently reported in rivers and streams across Japan (Nakada
et al. 2006), Europe (Buser et al. 1999), North America (Kolpin et al. 2002), Taiwan
(Lin and Tsai 2009), and North Korea (Kim et al. 2007). Ibuprofen has been
designed to inhibit the synthesis of bioactive fatty acids, inflammatory response
(e.g., prostaglandins and leukotrienes) from the second carbon groups of glycerol
synthetized by phospholipase A2, which in mammals and invertebrates function as
paracrine signalers relationship with reproduction and ion transport (Hayashi et al.
2008); (Paíga et al. 2013).
Diclofenac is a highly consumed and used in ambulatory care, as an analgesic,
antiarthritic, antirheumatic proposes. Diclofenac was developed to inhibit cyclooxygenase, both cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2, since its enzyme isoforms
are responsible for the inflammatory effects of prostaglandin production (Moncada
et al. 1976). Diclofenac is primarily metabolized to hydroxylated or methoxylated
derivatives (phase I) and after conjugated to phase II reactions in the liver, which
10 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment and. . .
303