10.2 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products Overview
Among the miscellaneous micropollutants discharged in domestic wastewaters, the
three top classes that have received scientific interest as displaying the most potentially dangerous effects are pharmaceuticals and personal care products. All possess
as common feature the fact that they are produced and consumed in large quantities
and a considerable is discharged into the environment after their use.
10.2.1 Personal Care Products
Personal care products are a class of micropollutants represented by disinfectants,
fragrances, preservatives, and sunscreen filters. Therefore, many personal care
products residues have often been detected at low concentrations in wastewater
treatment plant effluents and downstream surface waters. Triclosan and triclocarban
are among the most frequently compounds determined in aqueous matrices.
(Brausch and Rand 2011; Liu and Wong 2013). Triclosan and triclocarban are
cytostatic agents incorporated in the formula (around 0.1–2% w/v) of products to
prevent the growth of microorganisms in the detergents, toothpaste, and medical
disinfectants and cosmetic products (Singer et al. 2002).
Triclosan is produced worldwide at large amount per year (1500 of triclosan)
(Gao et al. 2014) and is a nonvolatile compound with lipophilic characteristic (log
Kow of 4.8), which makes it persistent and bioaccumulative (Zhao et al. 2010,
2013). In water, triclosan can be slowly transformed into dioxin-like compounds by
photolysis, according to the amount of sunlight, pH, and the presence of metal ions
and organic matter (Montagner et al. 2014). Triclosan was developed as a bactericide
inhibiting the enzyme enoylacyl protein reductase (Heath et al. 1999). Triclosan and
its metabolites can cause hazardous non-target organisms, for example, green algae
(Yang et al. 2008), crustaceans (Orvos et al. 2002) and fish (Chalew and Halden
2009), and display endocrine-disrupting implications humans, for example, promoting of human breast cancer (Gee et al. 2008; Raut and Angus 2010).
Triclocarban has been incorporated to detergents and cosmetics since 1957 to
prevent spoilage and microbial infections (Halden and Paull 2005). It has an annual
production around 227,000–454,000 kg in the United States (Halden and Paull
2005). The chemical fate of triclocarban in the aquatic environment is governed
by its physicochemical properties, as log K ow 4.9 and log K oc 4.5, exhibiting a
moderate lipophilic character (Ying et al. 2009). Almost 100% of triclocarban is
released into sewage system during their normal use (Gao et al. 2014); the wastewater treatment plant is not able to remove triclocarban by activated sludge systems
(Heidler and Halden 2007). Moreover, triclocarban is considered toxic (Nolen and
Dierckman 1979), persistent (Gledhill 1975), and able to be incorporated into the
food chain (Dimitrov et al. 2003).
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E. M. Saggioro
Among the miscellaneous micropollutants discharged in domestic wastewaters, the
three top classes that have received scientific interest as displaying the most potentially dangerous effects are pharmaceuticals and personal care products. All possess
as common feature the fact that they are produced and consumed in large quantities
and a considerable is discharged into the environment after their use.
10.2.1 Personal Care Products
Personal care products are a class of micropollutants represented by disinfectants,
fragrances, preservatives, and sunscreen filters. Therefore, many personal care
products residues have often been detected at low concentrations in wastewater
treatment plant effluents and downstream surface waters. Triclosan and triclocarban
are among the most frequently compounds determined in aqueous matrices.
(Brausch and Rand 2011; Liu and Wong 2013). Triclosan and triclocarban are
cytostatic agents incorporated in the formula (around 0.1–2% w/v) of products to
prevent the growth of microorganisms in the detergents, toothpaste, and medical
disinfectants and cosmetic products (Singer et al. 2002).
Triclosan is produced worldwide at large amount per year (1500 of triclosan)
(Gao et al. 2014) and is a nonvolatile compound with lipophilic characteristic (log
Kow of 4.8), which makes it persistent and bioaccumulative (Zhao et al. 2010,
2013). In water, triclosan can be slowly transformed into dioxin-like compounds by
photolysis, according to the amount of sunlight, pH, and the presence of metal ions
and organic matter (Montagner et al. 2014). Triclosan was developed as a bactericide
inhibiting the enzyme enoylacyl protein reductase (Heath et al. 1999). Triclosan and
its metabolites can cause hazardous non-target organisms, for example, green algae
(Yang et al. 2008), crustaceans (Orvos et al. 2002) and fish (Chalew and Halden
2009), and display endocrine-disrupting implications humans, for example, promoting of human breast cancer (Gee et al. 2008; Raut and Angus 2010).
Triclocarban has been incorporated to detergents and cosmetics since 1957 to
prevent spoilage and microbial infections (Halden and Paull 2005). It has an annual
production around 227,000–454,000 kg in the United States (Halden and Paull
2005). The chemical fate of triclocarban in the aquatic environment is governed
by its physicochemical properties, as log K ow 4.9 and log K oc 4.5, exhibiting a
moderate lipophilic character (Ying et al. 2009). Almost 100% of triclocarban is
released into sewage system during their normal use (Gao et al. 2014); the wastewater treatment plant is not able to remove triclocarban by activated sludge systems
(Heidler and Halden 2007). Moreover, triclocarban is considered toxic (Nolen and
Dierckman 1979), persistent (Gledhill 1975), and able to be incorporated into the
food chain (Dimitrov et al. 2003).
302
E. M. Saggioro