In another study, it was found that ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were present in
hospital effluent close to the Terriver in Spain (Heise et al. 2006). In addition,
erythromycin and ciprofloxacin were also noted in both receiving sewage water
and treated effluent in Sweden with concentrations 0.47 μg L
À1 and 1.41 μg L
À1 and
0.35 μg L
À1 and 0.06 μg L
À1 , respectively (Rodriguez-Mozaz et al. 2015; Östman
et al. 2017).
3.4 Existence in Water
3.4.1 Occurrence in Drinking Water
Natural and fresh aquatic environment is threatened by the presence of pharmaceutical compounds and raises the attention for risk assessment and distribution of
antibiotic-resistance microorganisms (Eguchi et al. 2004; Xu et al. 2007). The
high-quality drinking water and tap water became a big issue and far from trust
from contamination by antibiotic residues. For instance, macrolides, erythromycin,
and clarithromycin were detected in tap water in Madrid, and norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, lomefloxacin, and enrofloxacin, belonging to fluoroquinolone, were reported in
tap water with concentration ranged from 1.0–679.7 ng L
À1 to 2.0–37 ng L
À1 ,
respectively, in China (Yiruhan et al. 2010; Valcarcel et al. 2011). Drinking water
contamination by antibiotics is not restricted due to the improper discarded drugs in
the water supply worldwide.
Many countries have been found to have the presence of several classes of
antibiotics like lincomycin, erythromycin, and roxithromycin in different drinking
water sources (Stackelberg et al. 2007; Benotti et al. 2009; Huerta-Fontela et al.
2011), such as USA, Canada, and many European countries (Focazio et al. 2008;
Benotti et al. 2009; Mompelat et al. 2011; DeJongh et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2015).
Mahmood et al. (2019) reported that fluoroquinolones and β-lactams were the most
abundant drugs among other antibiotics in drinking water in Baghdad, Iraq; however, their concentrations varied according to water treatment management. In raw
and finished water, ciprofloxacin was detected with relatively high concentration of
1.344 and 1.312 μg L
À1 , respectively, whereas both levofloxacin and amoxicillin
were detected in raw water at 0.414 μg L
À1 and 1.50 μg L
À1 , respectively. The
presence of high concentration of ciprofloxacin and erythromycin in drinking water
is mainly attributed to the human consumption and the influence of wastewater
discharge, thus the possibility and extent of pollution from animal sources should not
be underestimated, where enrofloxacin is usually used for animal treatment only, but
could be metabolized to ciprofloxacin under certain conditions (USP 2003; Zhengqi
et al. 2004). Another study showed that macrolid antibiotic like tylosin was found in
drinking water in UK, Germany, and Italy, at concentrations of 10, 6, and
1.7 ng L
À1 , respectively (Waggot 1981). In China, several antibiotics like
sulfapyridine, sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacine, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin
3 Existence of Antibiotics in Wastewater as a Pollution Indicator
47
hospital effluent close to the Terriver in Spain (Heise et al. 2006). In addition,
erythromycin and ciprofloxacin were also noted in both receiving sewage water
and treated effluent in Sweden with concentrations 0.47 μg L
À1 and 1.41 μg L
À1 and
0.35 μg L
À1 and 0.06 μg L
À1 , respectively (Rodriguez-Mozaz et al. 2015; Östman
et al. 2017).
3.4 Existence in Water
3.4.1 Occurrence in Drinking Water
Natural and fresh aquatic environment is threatened by the presence of pharmaceutical compounds and raises the attention for risk assessment and distribution of
antibiotic-resistance microorganisms (Eguchi et al. 2004; Xu et al. 2007). The
high-quality drinking water and tap water became a big issue and far from trust
from contamination by antibiotic residues. For instance, macrolides, erythromycin,
and clarithromycin were detected in tap water in Madrid, and norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, lomefloxacin, and enrofloxacin, belonging to fluoroquinolone, were reported in
tap water with concentration ranged from 1.0–679.7 ng L
À1 to 2.0–37 ng L
À1 ,
respectively, in China (Yiruhan et al. 2010; Valcarcel et al. 2011). Drinking water
contamination by antibiotics is not restricted due to the improper discarded drugs in
the water supply worldwide.
Many countries have been found to have the presence of several classes of
antibiotics like lincomycin, erythromycin, and roxithromycin in different drinking
water sources (Stackelberg et al. 2007; Benotti et al. 2009; Huerta-Fontela et al.
2011), such as USA, Canada, and many European countries (Focazio et al. 2008;
Benotti et al. 2009; Mompelat et al. 2011; DeJongh et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2015).
Mahmood et al. (2019) reported that fluoroquinolones and β-lactams were the most
abundant drugs among other antibiotics in drinking water in Baghdad, Iraq; however, their concentrations varied according to water treatment management. In raw
and finished water, ciprofloxacin was detected with relatively high concentration of
1.344 and 1.312 μg L
À1 , respectively, whereas both levofloxacin and amoxicillin
were detected in raw water at 0.414 μg L
À1 and 1.50 μg L
À1 , respectively. The
presence of high concentration of ciprofloxacin and erythromycin in drinking water
is mainly attributed to the human consumption and the influence of wastewater
discharge, thus the possibility and extent of pollution from animal sources should not
be underestimated, where enrofloxacin is usually used for animal treatment only, but
could be metabolized to ciprofloxacin under certain conditions (USP 2003; Zhengqi
et al. 2004). Another study showed that macrolid antibiotic like tylosin was found in
drinking water in UK, Germany, and Italy, at concentrations of 10, 6, and
1.7 ng L
À1 , respectively (Waggot 1981). In China, several antibiotics like
sulfapyridine, sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacine, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin
3 Existence of Antibiotics in Wastewater as a Pollution Indicator
47