chloramphenicol, and doxycycline were detected in drinking water with concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 21.4 ng L
À1 (Hannaa et al. 2018).
3.4.2 Surface Water, Streams, and Lakes
Rivers and lakes are another place where antibiotics could be directly discharged
from human consumption or veterinary use. In Spain, five rivers were claimed to be
contaminated by antibiotics, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, metronidazole, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, tetracyclin, and trimethoprim with
mean concentration of 3, 235, 320.5, 1195.5, 10, 179, 179, 326, 23, and 424 ng L
À1 ,
respectively (Valcarcel et al. 2011). Many studies from South Korea, Italy, USA,
France, Taiwan, and Sweden also reported the presence of similar types of antibiotics in the rivers. Furthermore, a cluster of antibiotics, sulfapyridine, sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin chloramphenicol, and doxycycline
were investigated in Shandong river in China, with the relative concentration
ranging from 0.3 to 3.9 ng L
À1 (Hannaa et al. 2018). In another study in China,
four rivers were shown to be contaminated by norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin,
and oxytetracycline with concentrations of 5770, 1290, 653, and 652 ng g
À1 , respectively (Peng et al. 2008, 2011).
The distribution of antibiotics residues in surface water in North America is due to
not only processing, but also due to discarding of treated water, which resulted in a
good media for a complex of bacteria to be exposed to several antibiotics and
dissemination of antibiotics rapidly (Rodriguez-Rojas et al. 2013). Using liquid
chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to analyze and measure the concentration of antibiotics in surface water, many antibiotics appeared to be over the limits
of quantification, for example, the concentration of sulfapyridine and sulfamethoxazole were above 10 μg L
À1 in Europe (Díaz-Cruz et al. 2008; Ginebreda et al.
2010). In the USA, the concentration of some detected antibiotics was less than
2 μg L
À1 , whereas sulfadimethoxine was 15 μg L
À1 (Lindsey et al. 2001). However,
ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid were present in such high concentration up to
14 μg L
À1 and 23 μg L
À1 , respectively, in rivers and streams in South Africa
(Agunbiade and Moodley 2016). Lack of good sanitation facilities and welldesigned wastewater treatment approaches in low-income countries in particular is
another cause of increase in the concentration of antibiotic residues in fresh and
surface water. It was found that the mean concentration of antibiotics in contaminated fresh water in Asia-Pacific and Africa ranged between 17.7 μg L
À1 to
11.3 μg L
À1 , respectively, and 0.9 μg L
À1 to 0.4 μg L
À1 in America and Europe,
respectively, unlike other high-income countries, where the consumption rate of
antibiotics is high (Segura et al. 2015; Klein et al. 2018). However, a very small
amount of several antibiotics was also detected in surface water in these countries
such as Saudi Arabia, with less than 1 μg L
À1 (Alidina et al. 2014).
48
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.
À1 (Hannaa et al. 2018).
3.4.2 Surface Water, Streams, and Lakes
Rivers and lakes are another place where antibiotics could be directly discharged
from human consumption or veterinary use. In Spain, five rivers were claimed to be
contaminated by antibiotics, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, metronidazole, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, tetracyclin, and trimethoprim with
mean concentration of 3, 235, 320.5, 1195.5, 10, 179, 179, 326, 23, and 424 ng L
À1 ,
respectively (Valcarcel et al. 2011). Many studies from South Korea, Italy, USA,
France, Taiwan, and Sweden also reported the presence of similar types of antibiotics in the rivers. Furthermore, a cluster of antibiotics, sulfapyridine, sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, levofloxacin chloramphenicol, and doxycycline
were investigated in Shandong river in China, with the relative concentration
ranging from 0.3 to 3.9 ng L
À1 (Hannaa et al. 2018). In another study in China,
four rivers were shown to be contaminated by norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin,
and oxytetracycline with concentrations of 5770, 1290, 653, and 652 ng g
À1 , respectively (Peng et al. 2008, 2011).
The distribution of antibiotics residues in surface water in North America is due to
not only processing, but also due to discarding of treated water, which resulted in a
good media for a complex of bacteria to be exposed to several antibiotics and
dissemination of antibiotics rapidly (Rodriguez-Rojas et al. 2013). Using liquid
chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to analyze and measure the concentration of antibiotics in surface water, many antibiotics appeared to be over the limits
of quantification, for example, the concentration of sulfapyridine and sulfamethoxazole were above 10 μg L
À1 in Europe (Díaz-Cruz et al. 2008; Ginebreda et al.
2010). In the USA, the concentration of some detected antibiotics was less than
2 μg L
À1 , whereas sulfadimethoxine was 15 μg L
À1 (Lindsey et al. 2001). However,
ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid were present in such high concentration up to
14 μg L
À1 and 23 μg L
À1 , respectively, in rivers and streams in South Africa
(Agunbiade and Moodley 2016). Lack of good sanitation facilities and welldesigned wastewater treatment approaches in low-income countries in particular is
another cause of increase in the concentration of antibiotic residues in fresh and
surface water. It was found that the mean concentration of antibiotics in contaminated fresh water in Asia-Pacific and Africa ranged between 17.7 μg L
À1 to
11.3 μg L
À1 , respectively, and 0.9 μg L
À1 to 0.4 μg L
À1 in America and Europe,
respectively, unlike other high-income countries, where the consumption rate of
antibiotics is high (Segura et al. 2015; Klein et al. 2018). However, a very small
amount of several antibiotics was also detected in surface water in these countries
such as Saudi Arabia, with less than 1 μg L
À1 (Alidina et al. 2014).
48
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.