(Peng et al. 2009). Use of sludge in place of fertilizers is another source of antibiotics
in soil, and along with water irrigation can reach in the soil (Park et al. 2007), which
might cause allergy or toxic reaction, and develop antibiotic resistance in human
(Reddersen et al. 2002).
In general, antibiotic exposure routes are different particularly when drugs are
used for animal purpose rather than for human, as these drugs are discharged directly
to the soils or lands. Nevertheless, the concentration of antibiotics in manure or
dropping-amended soil is significantly higher than those in aquatic ecosystem,
although, some of these drugs are removed or eliminated rapidly over time by
microbial activity in the soil, while others might persist for many years (Sarmah
et al. 2006). Similarly, in sewage sludge, antibiotics exhibit robust interaction with
particles, and merely a small portion of the total amount is being active, but is still a
major issue (Kumar et al. 2005). In another way, antibiotics can be removed or
eliminated from water that comes from soil or sediment, due to ability of these
antibiotics to bind with soil particles, although this binding might delay their
degradation (Boxall et al. 2012).
3.3 Antibiotics Existing in the Environment
It is known that the increasing consumption of antibiotics in the world resulted in
their presence in detectable concentrations in many environmental areas, such as
surface water, groundwater, drinking water, domestic sewage, sediment, soil, agricultural ecosystem, etc. (Christian et al. 2003; Pei et al. 2006; Roberts and Thomas
2006; Baquero et al. 2008; Standley et al. 2008; Fick et al. 2009; Lindberg et al.
2010; Teijon et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2011; López-Serna et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014).
The concentration of detected antibiotics in natural environment is variable and
ranges from few nanograms to hundreds of nanograms based on their behavior in the
nature like adsorption, biodegradation, and photodegradation, as well as on their
usage and environmental parameters (Table 3.1) (Göbel et al. 2005; Verlicchi et al.
2015). For example, ciprofloxacin was detected in high quantities (50–80 %),
followed by tetracyclin (80–90 %), clarithromycin (25%), and sulfamethazole
(15–30 %), whereas, erythromycin was detected in very low amount (5–10 %)
(Mompelat et al. 2009; Al Aukidy et al. 2012; Orya et al. 2016). However, the
most detectable antibiotics in water are trimethoprim, quinolones, and sulfonamides
(Blackwell et al. 2005). These were detected from sewage treatment plant and flow
through of receiving river in China, while in the secondary effluents in the rivers also
contained high concentrations of these antibiotics ranged 195, 2001, and 3866 ng
L
À1 , respectively (Carvalho and Santos 2016). In Shanghai, animal manures and
agricultural soils appeared to have chloramphenicol, sulfonamides, and tetracycline
with concentrations of 3.27–17.85, 5.85–33.37, and 4.54–24.66 mg kg
À1 , respectively (Xu et al. 2015). On the other hand, fluoroquinolone has predominantly
appeared in sewage sludge, whereas sulfonamides are selectively present in the
wastewater (Giger et al. 2003; Ji et al. 2012).
46
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.
in soil, and along with water irrigation can reach in the soil (Park et al. 2007), which
might cause allergy or toxic reaction, and develop antibiotic resistance in human
(Reddersen et al. 2002).
In general, antibiotic exposure routes are different particularly when drugs are
used for animal purpose rather than for human, as these drugs are discharged directly
to the soils or lands. Nevertheless, the concentration of antibiotics in manure or
dropping-amended soil is significantly higher than those in aquatic ecosystem,
although, some of these drugs are removed or eliminated rapidly over time by
microbial activity in the soil, while others might persist for many years (Sarmah
et al. 2006). Similarly, in sewage sludge, antibiotics exhibit robust interaction with
particles, and merely a small portion of the total amount is being active, but is still a
major issue (Kumar et al. 2005). In another way, antibiotics can be removed or
eliminated from water that comes from soil or sediment, due to ability of these
antibiotics to bind with soil particles, although this binding might delay their
degradation (Boxall et al. 2012).
3.3 Antibiotics Existing in the Environment
It is known that the increasing consumption of antibiotics in the world resulted in
their presence in detectable concentrations in many environmental areas, such as
surface water, groundwater, drinking water, domestic sewage, sediment, soil, agricultural ecosystem, etc. (Christian et al. 2003; Pei et al. 2006; Roberts and Thomas
2006; Baquero et al. 2008; Standley et al. 2008; Fick et al. 2009; Lindberg et al.
2010; Teijon et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2011; López-Serna et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014).
The concentration of detected antibiotics in natural environment is variable and
ranges from few nanograms to hundreds of nanograms based on their behavior in the
nature like adsorption, biodegradation, and photodegradation, as well as on their
usage and environmental parameters (Table 3.1) (Göbel et al. 2005; Verlicchi et al.
2015). For example, ciprofloxacin was detected in high quantities (50–80 %),
followed by tetracyclin (80–90 %), clarithromycin (25%), and sulfamethazole
(15–30 %), whereas, erythromycin was detected in very low amount (5–10 %)
(Mompelat et al. 2009; Al Aukidy et al. 2012; Orya et al. 2016). However, the
most detectable antibiotics in water are trimethoprim, quinolones, and sulfonamides
(Blackwell et al. 2005). These were detected from sewage treatment plant and flow
through of receiving river in China, while in the secondary effluents in the rivers also
contained high concentrations of these antibiotics ranged 195, 2001, and 3866 ng
L
À1 , respectively (Carvalho and Santos 2016). In Shanghai, animal manures and
agricultural soils appeared to have chloramphenicol, sulfonamides, and tetracycline
with concentrations of 3.27–17.85, 5.85–33.37, and 4.54–24.66 mg kg
À1 , respectively (Xu et al. 2015). On the other hand, fluoroquinolone has predominantly
appeared in sewage sludge, whereas sulfonamides are selectively present in the
wastewater (Giger et al. 2003; Ji et al. 2012).
46
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.