65
playground, and grassland in the USA has reported to kill thousands of birds
(Tattersall 1991). Waterfowls like ducks and geese are most sensitive to diazinon
(LD 50 value in Table 3.1), and carbofuran alone is responsible for massive mortality
of birds in California followed by diazinon (US EPA 1998).
3.4 Sublethal Effect of Organophosphate/Carbamate
Exposure on Birds
The effects of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides are multitude. Sublethal
effects of cholinesterase inhibitors include production of smaller broods, changes in
mobility, feeding and migratory behaviour, endocrine disruption, immunomodulation, and interference in reproduction (Pinkas et al. 2015). Thus, pesticide intoxication reduces the chance of survival and successful reproduction, ultimately
perturbing to develop a healthy bird population (Pinkas et al. 2015; Eng et al. 2017).
However, scanty information is available on the probable consequences of longterm exposure to organophosphate/carbamates at sublethal level on avian species.
3.4.1 Biochemical Biomarkers
for Anticholinesterase Contaminants
Potential biomarkers used to monitor anticholinesterase exposure in birds include
determination of cholinesterase (Santos et al. 2016) and carboxylesterase activity
(Barr and Needham 2002), assessment of oxidative stress (Henry et al. 2015),
and lactate dehydrogenase activity (Barata et al. 2010). However, application of
suitable biochemical biomarkers depends on prior knowledge of species-specific
and age-related reference and threshold values to identify stress-mediated
responses from natural background variation (Domingues et al. 2015; Santos
et al. 2019). A dose-dependent decrease in liver carboxylesterase activity was
found following exposure to malathion, parathion, and trichlorfon in the range
0.125–2 mM for 48 hrs in Japanese quail (Abass 2014). Similar findings were
observed in chlorpyrifos-treated Japanese quail by Narvaez and coworkers
(2016). In a recent study, Ćupić Miladinović and coworkers (2018) observed that
following chlorpyrifos (CPF) exposure, there was an increased accumulation of
ROS in brain cells of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), supporting generation
of oxidative stress. They have also reported the alteration of several oxidative
stress-related parameters such as increased concentration of malondialdehyde
(MDA), glutathione (GSH), nitrite (NO 2
−
), and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 )] and
increased activity of antioxidative enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD)
and myeloperoxidase (MPO).
3 Toxic Effects of Pesticides on Avian Fauna
playground, and grassland in the USA has reported to kill thousands of birds
(Tattersall 1991). Waterfowls like ducks and geese are most sensitive to diazinon
(LD 50 value in Table 3.1), and carbofuran alone is responsible for massive mortality
of birds in California followed by diazinon (US EPA 1998).
3.4 Sublethal Effect of Organophosphate/Carbamate
Exposure on Birds
The effects of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides are multitude. Sublethal
effects of cholinesterase inhibitors include production of smaller broods, changes in
mobility, feeding and migratory behaviour, endocrine disruption, immunomodulation, and interference in reproduction (Pinkas et al. 2015). Thus, pesticide intoxication reduces the chance of survival and successful reproduction, ultimately
perturbing to develop a healthy bird population (Pinkas et al. 2015; Eng et al. 2017).
However, scanty information is available on the probable consequences of longterm exposure to organophosphate/carbamates at sublethal level on avian species.
3.4.1 Biochemical Biomarkers
for Anticholinesterase Contaminants
Potential biomarkers used to monitor anticholinesterase exposure in birds include
determination of cholinesterase (Santos et al. 2016) and carboxylesterase activity
(Barr and Needham 2002), assessment of oxidative stress (Henry et al. 2015),
and lactate dehydrogenase activity (Barata et al. 2010). However, application of
suitable biochemical biomarkers depends on prior knowledge of species-specific
and age-related reference and threshold values to identify stress-mediated
responses from natural background variation (Domingues et al. 2015; Santos
et al. 2019). A dose-dependent decrease in liver carboxylesterase activity was
found following exposure to malathion, parathion, and trichlorfon in the range
0.125–2 mM for 48 hrs in Japanese quail (Abass 2014). Similar findings were
observed in chlorpyrifos-treated Japanese quail by Narvaez and coworkers
(2016). In a recent study, Ćupić Miladinović and coworkers (2018) observed that
following chlorpyrifos (CPF) exposure, there was an increased accumulation of
ROS in brain cells of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), supporting generation
of oxidative stress. They have also reported the alteration of several oxidative
stress-related parameters such as increased concentration of malondialdehyde
(MDA), glutathione (GSH), nitrite (NO 2
−
), and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 )] and
increased activity of antioxidative enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD)
and myeloperoxidase (MPO).
3 Toxic Effects of Pesticides on Avian Fauna