64
Liquid Formulations and Flowable Pesticide
Liquid formulation is generally mixed with water, but sometimes, crop oil, diesel
fuel, kerosene, or some other light oil may be used as a medium. Liquid formulation
of pesticide usually contains the active ingredient, the carrier, and one or more other
ingredients and may combine the features of emulsifiable concentrate and wettable
powders. Although liquid formulations are easier to apply, they are efficiently
absorbed through skin of human and other animals. Liquid pesticides lessen the risk
of exposure to birds in comparison to the granular application because granular
formulations are more attractive to birds (Mineau and Whiteside 2006). However,
liquid form of pesticides can contaminate offsite soil, aquatic ecosystem terrestrial
flora, and insects from drizzling droplet overflow and erosion after application, and
some pesticides may disperse into the air, either becoming airborne during application or volatilizing from treated surfaces (Mackay et al. 2014). The most likely
routes of exposure of flowable pesticides to birds are through the ingestion of residues in food items (contaminated vegetables/prey) and in drinking water (on-field
puddles or other sources) or through inhalation, dermal contact, and preening
(Moore et al. 2014). The risk of flowable pesticide will be greater to birds foraging
on-field than off-field birds as greater exposure occurs in treated field. A study
reported that mortality rates per day in the flocks of Pennsylvania mourning dove
(Zenaida macroura) and American robin (Turdus migratorius) were significantly
higher in the methomyl, oxamyl (carbamate and dimethoate organophosphate),
and sprayed apple orchards than in non-treated orchards, and exposure of doves
and robins to these insecticides in a frequent rate significantly lowered the
reproductive fitness of these species (Fluetsch and Sparling 1994).
3.3 Lethal Effect of Organophosphate/Carbamate Exposure
on Birds
The birds are subjected to be at risk of lethal or sublethal doses of any broadspectrum pesticide like organophosphate and carbamates, if the time of foraging in
the adjacent area coincides with the time of application, or shortly after that, or
come in contiguity with the contaminated prey. According to the report of the United
States (US) Department of Interior’s National Wildlife Health Centre, organophosphate and carbamates are responsible for nearly about 50 percent of the registered
cases of lethal poisoning of birds (Madison 1993) that occur due to ingestion of
contaminated seeds or through secondary poisoning with the high concentration of
insecticide (Prosser and Hart 2005). During the year 1980–2000, about 335 individual mortality cases of approximately 9000 birds in the USA happened due to
organophosphate intoxication (Fleischli et al. 2004). The worst organophosphate
monocrotophos has been reported to cause over 100,000 deaths of avifauna throughout the world (Hooper 2002). Spraying operation of diazinon to backyard,
A. Mitra et al.
Liquid Formulations and Flowable Pesticide
Liquid formulation is generally mixed with water, but sometimes, crop oil, diesel
fuel, kerosene, or some other light oil may be used as a medium. Liquid formulation
of pesticide usually contains the active ingredient, the carrier, and one or more other
ingredients and may combine the features of emulsifiable concentrate and wettable
powders. Although liquid formulations are easier to apply, they are efficiently
absorbed through skin of human and other animals. Liquid pesticides lessen the risk
of exposure to birds in comparison to the granular application because granular
formulations are more attractive to birds (Mineau and Whiteside 2006). However,
liquid form of pesticides can contaminate offsite soil, aquatic ecosystem terrestrial
flora, and insects from drizzling droplet overflow and erosion after application, and
some pesticides may disperse into the air, either becoming airborne during application or volatilizing from treated surfaces (Mackay et al. 2014). The most likely
routes of exposure of flowable pesticides to birds are through the ingestion of residues in food items (contaminated vegetables/prey) and in drinking water (on-field
puddles or other sources) or through inhalation, dermal contact, and preening
(Moore et al. 2014). The risk of flowable pesticide will be greater to birds foraging
on-field than off-field birds as greater exposure occurs in treated field. A study
reported that mortality rates per day in the flocks of Pennsylvania mourning dove
(Zenaida macroura) and American robin (Turdus migratorius) were significantly
higher in the methomyl, oxamyl (carbamate and dimethoate organophosphate),
and sprayed apple orchards than in non-treated orchards, and exposure of doves
and robins to these insecticides in a frequent rate significantly lowered the
reproductive fitness of these species (Fluetsch and Sparling 1994).
3.3 Lethal Effect of Organophosphate/Carbamate Exposure
on Birds
The birds are subjected to be at risk of lethal or sublethal doses of any broadspectrum pesticide like organophosphate and carbamates, if the time of foraging in
the adjacent area coincides with the time of application, or shortly after that, or
come in contiguity with the contaminated prey. According to the report of the United
States (US) Department of Interior’s National Wildlife Health Centre, organophosphate and carbamates are responsible for nearly about 50 percent of the registered
cases of lethal poisoning of birds (Madison 1993) that occur due to ingestion of
contaminated seeds or through secondary poisoning with the high concentration of
insecticide (Prosser and Hart 2005). During the year 1980–2000, about 335 individual mortality cases of approximately 9000 birds in the USA happened due to
organophosphate intoxication (Fleischli et al. 2004). The worst organophosphate
monocrotophos has been reported to cause over 100,000 deaths of avifauna throughout the world (Hooper 2002). Spraying operation of diazinon to backyard,
A. Mitra et al.