557
Ixodorhynchidae, 333
Laelapidae, 333
Macronyssidae, 333
Manitherionyssidae, 333
Omentolaelapidae, 333
Otopheidomenidae, 332
Rhinonyssidae, 335
Spelaeorhychidae, 333
Spinturnicidae, 333
Varroidae, 333
as parasitoids
Macrodinychidae, 332
parasitic clades, 317
types of parasitism, 317
typical host groups, 317
Parasitism, 316
adaptions, 14
definition, 316, 381
ecosystem roles, 1
evolution
in Bivalvia, 175 (see also Parasitic
bivalves)
in Cnidaria, 109 (see also Parasitic
cnidarians)
in Chelicerata, 315 (see also Parasitic
chelicerates)
in Gnathifera, 299 (see also
Acanthocephala)
in Insecta, 395 (see also Parasitic
insects)
in Isopoda, 351 (see also Parasitic
isopods)
in Platyhelminths, 245 (see also
Parasitic platyhelminths)
misattribution of, 14
origin of, 395
Parasitoid guild, 379
Parasitoidism, 348
arachnid parasitoids, 338, 339
definition, 380
food web structure, 471, 498
history of the term, 382, 383
insect parasitoids, 382
types
ectoparasitoidism vs.
endoparasitoidism, 383
egg, 339
egg/larval/pupal/adult, 385
hyperparasitoids, 384, 385
koinobiont vs. idiobiont, 384
leptoparasitoidism, 385, 386
solitary vs. gregarious, 384
superparasitoidism vs.
multiparasitoidism, 384
Parasitiformes
Holothyrida, 328
Mesostigmata, 331–334
Opilioacarida, 328
Ixodida, 328, 329, 331
Paraxymyiidae, 479
Parreysiinae, 174
Passandridae, 397, 405, 406, 453
fossil record, 453, 470
ticks, 328
Pathogenic bacteria
direct evidence
actinobacteria, 46, 47
actinomycete in Permian fish
coprolite, 46, 47
actinomycetes, 44
Bacillus sporangium with nematode
Oligaphelenchus, 40, 41
bacterial cells in heterorhabditid
nematodes, 40
coccobacilli, 44–46
Palaeoborrelia in Amblyomma
tick, 41, 42
Palaeorickettsia in tick
Cornupalpatum, 43, 44
rickettsial-like cells, 42, 43
rod-shaped bacteria, 40, 41
spirochetes, 41, 42
host damage, 65
indirect evidence, 48, 49
in Cambrian onychophoran, 48
insect flatus, 48
luminescent organs, 48
Pathogenic protozoa
direct evidence
gregarines, 62, 63
malaria parasites, 54, 59
piroplasmids, 61, 62
trypanosome parasites, 49, 51, 53
fossil record, 30
indirect evidence
Entamoebites antiquus cyst in dinosaur
coprolite, 63, 64
life cycles, 49
Pathological changes, 361
See also Pathologies
Pathologies, 9, 237, 242, 247, 355,
357, 361
Peachia, 112
Pegantha, 113
Pelecinidae, 433, 480, 482, 484
Peleserphidae, 433, 484
Pennsylvanian, 80, 215, 217, 386, 496
Penitella conradi, 156
Index
Ixodorhynchidae, 333
Laelapidae, 333
Macronyssidae, 333
Manitherionyssidae, 333
Omentolaelapidae, 333
Otopheidomenidae, 332
Rhinonyssidae, 335
Spelaeorhychidae, 333
Spinturnicidae, 333
Varroidae, 333
as parasitoids
Macrodinychidae, 332
parasitic clades, 317
types of parasitism, 317
typical host groups, 317
Parasitism, 316
adaptions, 14
definition, 316, 381
ecosystem roles, 1
evolution
in Bivalvia, 175 (see also Parasitic
bivalves)
in Cnidaria, 109 (see also Parasitic
cnidarians)
in Chelicerata, 315 (see also Parasitic
chelicerates)
in Gnathifera, 299 (see also
Acanthocephala)
in Insecta, 395 (see also Parasitic
insects)
in Isopoda, 351 (see also Parasitic
isopods)
in Platyhelminths, 245 (see also
Parasitic platyhelminths)
misattribution of, 14
origin of, 395
Parasitoid guild, 379
Parasitoidism, 348
arachnid parasitoids, 338, 339
definition, 380
food web structure, 471, 498
history of the term, 382, 383
insect parasitoids, 382
types
ectoparasitoidism vs.
endoparasitoidism, 383
egg, 339
egg/larval/pupal/adult, 385
hyperparasitoids, 384, 385
koinobiont vs. idiobiont, 384
leptoparasitoidism, 385, 386
solitary vs. gregarious, 384
superparasitoidism vs.
multiparasitoidism, 384
Parasitiformes
Holothyrida, 328
Mesostigmata, 331–334
Opilioacarida, 328
Ixodida, 328, 329, 331
Paraxymyiidae, 479
Parreysiinae, 174
Passandridae, 397, 405, 406, 453
fossil record, 453, 470
ticks, 328
Pathogenic bacteria
direct evidence
actinobacteria, 46, 47
actinomycete in Permian fish
coprolite, 46, 47
actinomycetes, 44
Bacillus sporangium with nematode
Oligaphelenchus, 40, 41
bacterial cells in heterorhabditid
nematodes, 40
coccobacilli, 44–46
Palaeoborrelia in Amblyomma
tick, 41, 42
Palaeorickettsia in tick
Cornupalpatum, 43, 44
rickettsial-like cells, 42, 43
rod-shaped bacteria, 40, 41
spirochetes, 41, 42
host damage, 65
indirect evidence, 48, 49
in Cambrian onychophoran, 48
insect flatus, 48
luminescent organs, 48
Pathogenic protozoa
direct evidence
gregarines, 62, 63
malaria parasites, 54, 59
piroplasmids, 61, 62
trypanosome parasites, 49, 51, 53
fossil record, 30
indirect evidence
Entamoebites antiquus cyst in dinosaur
coprolite, 63, 64
life cycles, 49
Pathological changes, 361
See also Pathologies
Pathologies, 9, 237, 242, 247, 355,
357, 361
Peachia, 112
Pegantha, 113
Pelecinidae, 433, 480, 482, 484
Peleserphidae, 433, 484
Pennsylvanian, 80, 215, 217, 386, 496
Penitella conradi, 156
Index