445
b
Only those family-level taxa with parasitoid or related life habits are listed under their respective, encompassing clades. Obligate or facultative parasitic groups
that do not kill their hosts are excluded from this list. Parasitoid types—ectoparasitoid, endoparasitoid, hyperparasitoid, cleptoparasitoid—are listed in approximate order of abundance
c
Major host clades are listed, occasionally with family-level examples to flesh out taxonomic details. This is not an exhaustive list and new parasitoid clades
are discovered each year. The extended dash (—) indicates that the taxonomic identities of the hosts remain unknown or would have been based on inadequate data
d
The major developmental stage of hosts undergoing parasitoid attack is provided. The North American rather European system of naming larval stages is used.
A larva designates a developmental stage intercalated between the egg and pupal stages in holometabolous insects. Accordingly, a naiad is the developmental
stage of a nonholometabolous insect in the aquatic realm whereas a nymph is the analogous developmental stage in the terrestrial realm. The extended dash
(—) indicates that the life habits of the hosts remain unknown or would have been based on inadequate data
e
The geologic time scale of Walker et al. (2013) is used, one that represents advances in several fields that have contributed to greater precision of age estimates.
Range-through data is assumed. Geochronologic ranges are for the broader clade encompassing the parasitoid taxa, and not for individual parasitoid lineages
f
References include primary sources of original studies as well as reviews of original sources. The sources are not meant to be complete, but rather indicative
of the more important life-habit studies and fossil occurrences
g
All strepsipteran lineages are considered parasitoids, rather than their attribution to parasites mentioned by Eggleton and Belshaw (1992). The parasitoid life
habit of Strepsiptera is based on Kathirithamby’s (2009) criterion that after strepsipteran hosts are parasitized, they “…develop and obtain nutrients from a
single host, thereby castrating and eventually killing it” (page 234)
h
Major taxonomic subdivisions of the Strepsiptera are after Engel et al. (2016a)
i
Attribution to a particular parasitoid larval life habit for these fossil and poorly known groups are inferred from one or more of the following four criteria. First
is the phylogenetic position of the parasitoid lineage within a broader phylogeny. Second are the known biologies of closely related lineages. Third is the availability of particular host lineages for parasitoidism within the local, contemporaneous biota. Fourth are the limitations of small size for host choice
j
A probable paraphyletic group
11 The History of Insect Parasitism and the Mid-Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution
b
Only those family-level taxa with parasitoid or related life habits are listed under their respective, encompassing clades. Obligate or facultative parasitic groups
that do not kill their hosts are excluded from this list. Parasitoid types—ectoparasitoid, endoparasitoid, hyperparasitoid, cleptoparasitoid—are listed in approximate order of abundance
c
Major host clades are listed, occasionally with family-level examples to flesh out taxonomic details. This is not an exhaustive list and new parasitoid clades
are discovered each year. The extended dash (—) indicates that the taxonomic identities of the hosts remain unknown or would have been based on inadequate data
d
The major developmental stage of hosts undergoing parasitoid attack is provided. The North American rather European system of naming larval stages is used.
A larva designates a developmental stage intercalated between the egg and pupal stages in holometabolous insects. Accordingly, a naiad is the developmental
stage of a nonholometabolous insect in the aquatic realm whereas a nymph is the analogous developmental stage in the terrestrial realm. The extended dash
(—) indicates that the life habits of the hosts remain unknown or would have been based on inadequate data
e
The geologic time scale of Walker et al. (2013) is used, one that represents advances in several fields that have contributed to greater precision of age estimates.
Range-through data is assumed. Geochronologic ranges are for the broader clade encompassing the parasitoid taxa, and not for individual parasitoid lineages
f
References include primary sources of original studies as well as reviews of original sources. The sources are not meant to be complete, but rather indicative
of the more important life-habit studies and fossil occurrences
g
All strepsipteran lineages are considered parasitoids, rather than their attribution to parasites mentioned by Eggleton and Belshaw (1992). The parasitoid life
habit of Strepsiptera is based on Kathirithamby’s (2009) criterion that after strepsipteran hosts are parasitized, they “…develop and obtain nutrients from a
single host, thereby castrating and eventually killing it” (page 234)
h
Major taxonomic subdivisions of the Strepsiptera are after Engel et al. (2016a)
i
Attribution to a particular parasitoid larval life habit for these fossil and poorly known groups are inferred from one or more of the following four criteria. First
is the phylogenetic position of the parasitoid lineage within a broader phylogeny. Second are the known biologies of closely related lineages. Third is the availability of particular host lineages for parasitoidism within the local, contemporaneous biota. Fourth are the limitations of small size for host choice
j
A probable paraphyletic group
11 The History of Insect Parasitism and the Mid-Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution