95
The sobering truth is that, in most of the fossil record, we will never be able trace
parasitic fungal interactions, simply because either the fungi are not preserved or
the structural features required in determining the nutritional modes of the fungi
cannot be resolved. On the other hand, we must not overhear the clarion call for
concerted research efforts aimed at integrating other research fields such as geochemistry or biomarker analysis into paleomycology, because they might provide
some of the information that cannot be obtained by using traditional paleontological
techniques. More than anything, collaborative and synergistic research efforts are
needed between neo-mycologists, pathologists, and paleontologists to accurately
document fossil fungi and their many different interactions with other ecosystem
components so that these fossils can be placed in a greater context such as (paleo-)
ecosystem functioning and/or phylogenetic analyses.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge financial support from the Alexander von HumboldtFoundation (3.1-USA/1160852 STP to C.J.H.), and the National Science Foundation
(DEB-1441604 subcontract S1696A-A to M.K.). We gratefully acknowledge H. Kerp and
H. Hass (both Münster, Germany), G.O. Poinar and R.A. Stockey (both Corvallis, OR,
USA), and A.R. Schmidt (Göttingen, Germany) for providing images, A.-L. Decombeix
(Montpellier, France) for fruitful discussions, as well as N. Dotzler, H. Martin, and S. Sónyi
(all Munich, Germany) for technical assistance, and K. De Baets (Erlangen, Germany) for
insightful comments on the manuscript.
References
Aggarwal N, Krings M, Jha N, Taylor TN (2015) Unusual spheroidal inclusions in Late Permian
gymnosperm pollen grains from southern India revisited: evidence of a fungal nature. Grana
54:174–183
Agrios GN (2005) Plant pathology, 5th edn. Academic Press, Amsterdam
Ainsworth GC, Sparrow FK, Sussman AS (eds) (1973) The fungi, an advanced treatise, vol IV A:
A taxonomic review with keys: Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti. Academic, New York, NY
Aist JR (1976) Papillae and related wound plugs of plant cells. Annu Rev Phytopathol 14:145–163
Aist JR (1977) Mechanically induced wall appositions of plant cells can prevent penetration by a
parasitic fungus. Science 197:568–570
Aist JR (1983) Structural responses as resistance mechanisms. In: Bailey JA, Deverall BJ (eds) The
dynamics of host defence. Academic, Sydney
Akai S (1959) Histology of defense in plants. In: Horsfall JG, Dimond AE (eds) Plant pathology,
an advanced treatise, vol. I: the diseased plant. Academic, New York, NY
Allison PA, Briggs DEG (1993) Exceptional fossil record: distribution of soft-tissue preservation
through the Phanerozoic. Geology 21:527–530
Altermann W, Schopf JW (1995) Microfossils from the Neoarchean Campbell Group, Griqualand
West Sequence of the Transvaal Supergroup, and their paleoenvironmental and evolutionary
implications. Precambrian Res 75:65–90
Anderson JP, Gleason CA, Foley RC, Thrall PH, Burdon JB, Singh KB (2010) Plants versus pathogens: an evolutionary arms race. Funct Plant Biol 37:499–512
Anderson LI, Trewin NH (2003) An Early Devonian arthropod fauna from the Windyfield cherts,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Palaeontology 46:467–509
3 Fungi as Parasites: A Conspectus of the Fossil Record
The sobering truth is that, in most of the fossil record, we will never be able trace
parasitic fungal interactions, simply because either the fungi are not preserved or
the structural features required in determining the nutritional modes of the fungi
cannot be resolved. On the other hand, we must not overhear the clarion call for
concerted research efforts aimed at integrating other research fields such as geochemistry or biomarker analysis into paleomycology, because they might provide
some of the information that cannot be obtained by using traditional paleontological
techniques. More than anything, collaborative and synergistic research efforts are
needed between neo-mycologists, pathologists, and paleontologists to accurately
document fossil fungi and their many different interactions with other ecosystem
components so that these fossils can be placed in a greater context such as (paleo-)
ecosystem functioning and/or phylogenetic analyses.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge financial support from the Alexander von HumboldtFoundation (3.1-USA/1160852 STP to C.J.H.), and the National Science Foundation
(DEB-1441604 subcontract S1696A-A to M.K.). We gratefully acknowledge H. Kerp and
H. Hass (both Münster, Germany), G.O. Poinar and R.A. Stockey (both Corvallis, OR,
USA), and A.R. Schmidt (Göttingen, Germany) for providing images, A.-L. Decombeix
(Montpellier, France) for fruitful discussions, as well as N. Dotzler, H. Martin, and S. Sónyi
(all Munich, Germany) for technical assistance, and K. De Baets (Erlangen, Germany) for
insightful comments on the manuscript.
References
Aggarwal N, Krings M, Jha N, Taylor TN (2015) Unusual spheroidal inclusions in Late Permian
gymnosperm pollen grains from southern India revisited: evidence of a fungal nature. Grana
54:174–183
Agrios GN (2005) Plant pathology, 5th edn. Academic Press, Amsterdam
Ainsworth GC, Sparrow FK, Sussman AS (eds) (1973) The fungi, an advanced treatise, vol IV A:
A taxonomic review with keys: Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti. Academic, New York, NY
Aist JR (1976) Papillae and related wound plugs of plant cells. Annu Rev Phytopathol 14:145–163
Aist JR (1977) Mechanically induced wall appositions of plant cells can prevent penetration by a
parasitic fungus. Science 197:568–570
Aist JR (1983) Structural responses as resistance mechanisms. In: Bailey JA, Deverall BJ (eds) The
dynamics of host defence. Academic, Sydney
Akai S (1959) Histology of defense in plants. In: Horsfall JG, Dimond AE (eds) Plant pathology,
an advanced treatise, vol. I: the diseased plant. Academic, New York, NY
Allison PA, Briggs DEG (1993) Exceptional fossil record: distribution of soft-tissue preservation
through the Phanerozoic. Geology 21:527–530
Altermann W, Schopf JW (1995) Microfossils from the Neoarchean Campbell Group, Griqualand
West Sequence of the Transvaal Supergroup, and their paleoenvironmental and evolutionary
implications. Precambrian Res 75:65–90
Anderson JP, Gleason CA, Foley RC, Thrall PH, Burdon JB, Singh KB (2010) Plants versus pathogens: an evolutionary arms race. Funct Plant Biol 37:499–512
Anderson LI, Trewin NH (2003) An Early Devonian arthropod fauna from the Windyfield cherts,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Palaeontology 46:467–509
3 Fungi as Parasites: A Conspectus of the Fossil Record