enormous emissions of carbon and toxic gases associated with biomass burning to
the atmosphere. Rapid peat decomposition emits a large amount of carbon.
A summary of carbon emissions from land-use change and peat decomposition in
drained peats is presented in Table 16.3.
All peats are natural wetlands with characteristics of the high groundwater table
and water storage. In particular, tropical peat ecosystems are more diverse in
biodiversity than temperate peat ecosystems. Forest formations in tropical peats
are unique to local conditions, consisting of endemic species of flora and fauna.
Flora in peat swamp forests is vital for the continuous supply of organic matter, a
prerequisite factor for peat accumulation.
The classical study of floristic formations in tropical peat swamp forest refers to
the publication of the study (Anderson 1963) in Northern Borneo. Vegetation
associations of significant tree species shape several canopy stories of tropical peat
swamp forests. These tree species might also occur in heath forests (kerangas), and
other dipterocarp forests in drylands. Hundreds of trees occur in peat swamp forests
(Page et al. 1999). To mention a few, these are Shorea balangeran, S. albida,
S. platycarpa, S. uliginosa, S. pachyphylla, Gonystylus bancanus, Combretocarpus
rotundatus, Dyera costulata, Palaquium spp., Campnosperma spp., Calophyllum
spp., Dactylocladus stenostachys, Agathis dammara, and much other flora. Selected
conifers, e.g., Dacrydium beccarii and Gymnostoma nobilis, occur in the peat
swamp forest (Anderson 1963). Further, Page et al. (1999) reported a variety of
vegetation formations in peat swamp forest and found formations of a low pole and
tall interior forests in a deep peat area (7–10 m) in Sebangau peat complex, Central
Kalimantan. The peat-forming vegetation is commonly found in every habitat of
tropical peatlands. The removal of the vegetation causes the growth of tropical peat
completely to cease, and the tropical peat forest becomes an abundant source of
carbon emissions.
16.7 Degradation and Restoration of Tropical Peatland
This section presents a brief time-line of peat degradation and restoration in Indonesia. Harvesting of lucrative timber species, converting peatlands to agricultures,
drainage for lowering groundwater tables, and recurrent fires are primary causes of
peat degradation. Logging started in the 1970s and lasted only a few decades,
leaving no timber left in peat forests. Accordingly, logged-over peat forests have
no longer economically direct values for earning foreign exchange. The conversion
of peat forests aimed at opening new lands for rice paddy production in Sumatra and
Kalimantan. Hence, drainage canals were massively built to lower the groundwater
table and wash away dissolved organic acids, which are toxic to the rice paddy.
However, all peatland conversions in Sumatra and Kalimantan in early 1970, and
later the Mega rice project of Central Kalimantan in 1995/1996, were not successful.
Most of these peats are deforested and flammable during recurrent fire outbreaks. It
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G. Anshari
the atmosphere. Rapid peat decomposition emits a large amount of carbon.
A summary of carbon emissions from land-use change and peat decomposition in
drained peats is presented in Table 16.3.
All peats are natural wetlands with characteristics of the high groundwater table
and water storage. In particular, tropical peat ecosystems are more diverse in
biodiversity than temperate peat ecosystems. Forest formations in tropical peats
are unique to local conditions, consisting of endemic species of flora and fauna.
Flora in peat swamp forests is vital for the continuous supply of organic matter, a
prerequisite factor for peat accumulation.
The classical study of floristic formations in tropical peat swamp forest refers to
the publication of the study (Anderson 1963) in Northern Borneo. Vegetation
associations of significant tree species shape several canopy stories of tropical peat
swamp forests. These tree species might also occur in heath forests (kerangas), and
other dipterocarp forests in drylands. Hundreds of trees occur in peat swamp forests
(Page et al. 1999). To mention a few, these are Shorea balangeran, S. albida,
S. platycarpa, S. uliginosa, S. pachyphylla, Gonystylus bancanus, Combretocarpus
rotundatus, Dyera costulata, Palaquium spp., Campnosperma spp., Calophyllum
spp., Dactylocladus stenostachys, Agathis dammara, and much other flora. Selected
conifers, e.g., Dacrydium beccarii and Gymnostoma nobilis, occur in the peat
swamp forest (Anderson 1963). Further, Page et al. (1999) reported a variety of
vegetation formations in peat swamp forest and found formations of a low pole and
tall interior forests in a deep peat area (7–10 m) in Sebangau peat complex, Central
Kalimantan. The peat-forming vegetation is commonly found in every habitat of
tropical peatlands. The removal of the vegetation causes the growth of tropical peat
completely to cease, and the tropical peat forest becomes an abundant source of
carbon emissions.
16.7 Degradation and Restoration of Tropical Peatland
This section presents a brief time-line of peat degradation and restoration in Indonesia. Harvesting of lucrative timber species, converting peatlands to agricultures,
drainage for lowering groundwater tables, and recurrent fires are primary causes of
peat degradation. Logging started in the 1970s and lasted only a few decades,
leaving no timber left in peat forests. Accordingly, logged-over peat forests have
no longer economically direct values for earning foreign exchange. The conversion
of peat forests aimed at opening new lands for rice paddy production in Sumatra and
Kalimantan. Hence, drainage canals were massively built to lower the groundwater
table and wash away dissolved organic acids, which are toxic to the rice paddy.
However, all peatland conversions in Sumatra and Kalimantan in early 1970, and
later the Mega rice project of Central Kalimantan in 1995/1996, were not successful.
Most of these peats are deforested and flammable during recurrent fire outbreaks. It
470
G. Anshari