7 Particle Detectors and Detector Systems
299
0.1
1
10
100
H e
N e
H 2
O 2
A r
A i r
N 2
N O
C O
N H 3
C H 2 F 2
K r
C H 4
C O 2
C F 4
N 2 O
C H 3 O H
C 2 H 2
H 2 S
S O 2
C 2 H 4
X e
C 2 H 6
C H 2 C l F
C H C l F 2
C l
S F 6
C 2 H 5 O H
C 3 H 8
C B r F 3
C H C l 2 F
B r
C C l 2 F 2
C 4 F 8
C 2 C l 2 F 4
C H C l 3
C S 2
C 4 H 1 0
i s o - C 4 H 1 0
C 4 H 1 0 O
C H 3 C l
C 5 H 1 2
n e o - C 5 H 1 2
P C l 3
C C l 4
C 8 F 1 6 O
(n-1)10 4
Fig. 7.14 Refractive index for some common fluids. D-line (589 nm). Data from [16, 22]
7.4.2.3 Fluids as Radiators
The relationship between the refractive index of a gas and the corresponding liquid,
is given by:
n 2 − 1
n 2 + 2
gas
=
p
RT
gas
M
ρ
liq
n 2 − 1
n 2 + 2
liq
(7.27)
where p and T is the pressure and temperature of the gas, M and ρ is the molecular
weight and density of the liquid and R is the gas constant (based on pressure and
volume units R = 82.0575 (cm 3 atm)/(K mol)).
The refractive index for a number of fluids is plotted in Fig. 7.14.
7.4.3 Threshold Cherenkov Detectors
As soon as photon detectors, Chap. 3, coupled with the associated electronics,
had the sensitivity to detect the low level of photons emitted through Cherenkov
radiation, the first threshold Cherenkov detectors, see Figs. 7.15 and 7.16, were used
in high energy experiments. The best known of these early experiments, is probably
the discovery of the antiproton at the Radiation Laboratory of the University of
California at Berkeley in 1955 [42].
The design of these threshold detectors is simple as is shown in Fig. 7.16a. In
this sketch, the radiator is a gas. There is no problem to change it by inserting
299
0.1
1
10
100
H e
N e
H 2
O 2
A r
A i r
N 2
N O
C O
N H 3
C H 2 F 2
K r
C H 4
C O 2
C F 4
N 2 O
C H 3 O H
C 2 H 2
H 2 S
S O 2
C 2 H 4
X e
C 2 H 6
C H 2 C l F
C H C l F 2
C l
S F 6
C 2 H 5 O H
C 3 H 8
C B r F 3
C H C l 2 F
B r
C C l 2 F 2
C 4 F 8
C 2 C l 2 F 4
C H C l 3
C S 2
C 4 H 1 0
i s o - C 4 H 1 0
C 4 H 1 0 O
C H 3 C l
C 5 H 1 2
n e o - C 5 H 1 2
P C l 3
C C l 4
C 8 F 1 6 O
(n-1)10 4
Fig. 7.14 Refractive index for some common fluids. D-line (589 nm). Data from [16, 22]
7.4.2.3 Fluids as Radiators
The relationship between the refractive index of a gas and the corresponding liquid,
is given by:
n 2 − 1
n 2 + 2
gas
=
p
RT
gas
M
ρ
liq
n 2 − 1
n 2 + 2
liq
(7.27)
where p and T is the pressure and temperature of the gas, M and ρ is the molecular
weight and density of the liquid and R is the gas constant (based on pressure and
volume units R = 82.0575 (cm 3 atm)/(K mol)).
The refractive index for a number of fluids is plotted in Fig. 7.14.
7.4.3 Threshold Cherenkov Detectors
As soon as photon detectors, Chap. 3, coupled with the associated electronics,
had the sensitivity to detect the low level of photons emitted through Cherenkov
radiation, the first threshold Cherenkov detectors, see Figs. 7.15 and 7.16, were used
in high energy experiments. The best known of these early experiments, is probably
the discovery of the antiproton at the Radiation Laboratory of the University of
California at Berkeley in 1955 [42].
The design of these threshold detectors is simple as is shown in Fig. 7.16a. In
this sketch, the radiator is a gas. There is no problem to change it by inserting