226
oxygen atom having the higher electronegativity compared to the hydrogen atoms.
Simply, the oxygen atom carries a slightly negative charge, while hydrogen atoms
are slightly positive and thus each water molecule contains one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Interestingly, it is the only substance on earth that can exist as solid, liquid, and gas in normal conditions whereas
its liquid state exists at standard ambient temperature and pressure, its solid state
exists as ice, and its gaseous state exists as steam or water vapor [1, 4, 5]. It also
exists in the subforms of ice packs and icebergs, fog, glaciers, aquifers, atmospheric
humidity, and dew, which are the main components of earth’s streams situated in
different locations [1, 6]. Under different circumstances, water can have different
attributes; when standard pressure is 1 atm, water is in the form of liquid between
0 °C (32 °F) and 100 °C (212 °F). However, the melting point will change to −5 °C
at 600 atm and −22 °C at 2100 atm, which is used as the principle to explain the
movement of glaciers, ice skating, and buried lakes of Antarctica. What is more, the
melting point will rapidly increase again, leading to several exotic forms of ice that
do not exist at lower pressures when pressure is higher than 2100 atm [7–9]. The
boiling point of water also changes due to the changes of pressure. For instance, the
point is 374 °C at 220 atm but 68 °C (154 °F) at the top of Mount Everest with the
atmospheric pressure of 0.34 atm. The effect of this change is applied on pressure
cooking, steam engine design, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, etc. Simply, water’s
attributes change under extreme conditions and thus when the pressure is extremely
low (lower than 0.006 atm), water cannot exist in liquid form and passes directly
from solid to gas by sublimation, which is used for freeze-drying of food. When the
pressure is extremely high (higher than 221 atm), the liquid and gas states are no
more distinguishable, and a new state called supercritical steam replaces [10–12].
Another characteristic of water is that it becomes less dense as it freezes compared
to most liquids. The maximum density of water in its liquid form (at 1 atm) is
1000 kg/m
3
(62.43 lb./ft
3
), which occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F) while the density of
ice is 917 kg/m
3
(57.25 lb./ft
3
). Thus, through calculation, water expands 9% in volume as it freezes, which reflects the fact that ice floats on liquid water [4, 13].
Simply this natural resource, H 2 O, is unique, which needs to be utilized calculatively to meet our daily lives and thus this research has been conducted to clarify all
the possible natural sources of water collection in order to conserve this valuable
element to protect the modern civilization and future generation.
Methods and Materials
The global water dimension has been clarified by custodial analysis to identify the
net water resource on earth by using MATLAB software. Therefore, the calculation
of barotropic (depth-averaged) water modeling considers Boussinesq approximation, hydrostatic momentum, and mass balances, and water material tracer conservation of earth topography coordinate is determined as
12 Potable Water
oxygen atom having the higher electronegativity compared to the hydrogen atoms.
Simply, the oxygen atom carries a slightly negative charge, while hydrogen atoms
are slightly positive and thus each water molecule contains one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Interestingly, it is the only substance on earth that can exist as solid, liquid, and gas in normal conditions whereas
its liquid state exists at standard ambient temperature and pressure, its solid state
exists as ice, and its gaseous state exists as steam or water vapor [1, 4, 5]. It also
exists in the subforms of ice packs and icebergs, fog, glaciers, aquifers, atmospheric
humidity, and dew, which are the main components of earth’s streams situated in
different locations [1, 6]. Under different circumstances, water can have different
attributes; when standard pressure is 1 atm, water is in the form of liquid between
0 °C (32 °F) and 100 °C (212 °F). However, the melting point will change to −5 °C
at 600 atm and −22 °C at 2100 atm, which is used as the principle to explain the
movement of glaciers, ice skating, and buried lakes of Antarctica. What is more, the
melting point will rapidly increase again, leading to several exotic forms of ice that
do not exist at lower pressures when pressure is higher than 2100 atm [7–9]. The
boiling point of water also changes due to the changes of pressure. For instance, the
point is 374 °C at 220 atm but 68 °C (154 °F) at the top of Mount Everest with the
atmospheric pressure of 0.34 atm. The effect of this change is applied on pressure
cooking, steam engine design, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, etc. Simply, water’s
attributes change under extreme conditions and thus when the pressure is extremely
low (lower than 0.006 atm), water cannot exist in liquid form and passes directly
from solid to gas by sublimation, which is used for freeze-drying of food. When the
pressure is extremely high (higher than 221 atm), the liquid and gas states are no
more distinguishable, and a new state called supercritical steam replaces [10–12].
Another characteristic of water is that it becomes less dense as it freezes compared
to most liquids. The maximum density of water in its liquid form (at 1 atm) is
1000 kg/m
3
(62.43 lb./ft
3
), which occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F) while the density of
ice is 917 kg/m
3
(57.25 lb./ft
3
). Thus, through calculation, water expands 9% in volume as it freezes, which reflects the fact that ice floats on liquid water [4, 13].
Simply this natural resource, H 2 O, is unique, which needs to be utilized calculatively to meet our daily lives and thus this research has been conducted to clarify all
the possible natural sources of water collection in order to conserve this valuable
element to protect the modern civilization and future generation.
Methods and Materials
The global water dimension has been clarified by custodial analysis to identify the
net water resource on earth by using MATLAB software. Therefore, the calculation
of barotropic (depth-averaged) water modeling considers Boussinesq approximation, hydrostatic momentum, and mass balances, and water material tracer conservation of earth topography coordinate is determined as
12 Potable Water