increase (1–4.5 to 5–10) as response of raising temperature so partially suitable areas
for H. hampei may turn into favorable habitat. Encroachment of coffee crop, as a
result of climate change and insect pests, to higher elevated areas will not only cause
deforestation but also a future threat to sustain the current coffee quality Bunn et al.
[178], food security, biodiversity, and carbon (C) [218]. The ecological niche
modeling studies for the mapping of new and loosing areas predicted that 83% of
future coffee producing area will not be suitable for Arabica coffee to produce coffee
with present existing typical cup quality as compared to only 17% incompatible for
Robusta. Moreover, Arabica could lose up to 56% existing cultivation area with only
a gain of 9% totaling 19.4 million hectares. On the contrary, by 2050, Robusta is
expected to get double new cultivable area than the lost [177, 218]. Despite future
availability of enough cultivable area for coffee to meet demands, 14–65% of future
arable area is currently under forestation and other food crops alarming the food
security status. The expansion of coffee tillable land will also cause the expansion of
the distribution of coffee insect pests (especially H. hampei) from current 50–57% to
77.7–93.02% [218], another indication of quality threat to coffee beans. Further,
there are also other conjunctive hurdles in re-colonizing the coffee at higher elevation, such as lack of infrastructure required for transformative agronomic,
harvesting, and postharvesting operations, new kind of coffee predators, i.e., coffee
leaf rust even now more prevalent in higher elevations too, higher rate of soil
erodibility, hike in input cost, unavailability of higher altitudes in some major
Arabica coffee producing countries, e.g., Brazil, Ethiopia, Colombia [209]. Several
authors stated the adaption and mitigation strategies to cope with the climate change
and its impacts on coffee productivity, quality, and socioeconomic conditions. The
detail of these adaption and mitigation strategies is listed in the Table 4 (also add
crop insurance, build coffee collaboration network, restructuring of coffee chain,
financial transfer tools (payments for ecosystem or watershed services) and policy
making).
2.6
Sun Versus Shade or Agro-Ecosystems
Coffee Arabica and coffee Robusta accounted for world’s 99% coffee production.
Both coffee varieties have natural inclination and adaptability to produce superior
quality coffee under the shade only as two varieties historically evolved from
understory forests of Africa [185]. In Latin America, in 1950s, most of farmers
began to produce sun grown coffee, in order to meet the global consumption
demand, by substituting the shade with other costly inputs like fertilizers, herbicides,
pesticides, large plant spacing, etc. [219]. The outcomes of this trend are taken to be
severe as it not only left its toxic effects on soil and water, irrespective of high yield,
but also occasionally produced low quality coffee. The choice of sun or shade grown
coffee systems (agro-ecosystems), with their own pros and cons too, largely depends
upon the understanding the prevailing environmental factors (resources, conservation, biodiversity, stability, organic production, byproducts, etc.), framers priorities
(yield or quality, etc.), regional policies (eco-friendly coffee production, organic
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
679
for H. hampei may turn into favorable habitat. Encroachment of coffee crop, as a
result of climate change and insect pests, to higher elevated areas will not only cause
deforestation but also a future threat to sustain the current coffee quality Bunn et al.
[178], food security, biodiversity, and carbon (C) [218]. The ecological niche
modeling studies for the mapping of new and loosing areas predicted that 83% of
future coffee producing area will not be suitable for Arabica coffee to produce coffee
with present existing typical cup quality as compared to only 17% incompatible for
Robusta. Moreover, Arabica could lose up to 56% existing cultivation area with only
a gain of 9% totaling 19.4 million hectares. On the contrary, by 2050, Robusta is
expected to get double new cultivable area than the lost [177, 218]. Despite future
availability of enough cultivable area for coffee to meet demands, 14–65% of future
arable area is currently under forestation and other food crops alarming the food
security status. The expansion of coffee tillable land will also cause the expansion of
the distribution of coffee insect pests (especially H. hampei) from current 50–57% to
77.7–93.02% [218], another indication of quality threat to coffee beans. Further,
there are also other conjunctive hurdles in re-colonizing the coffee at higher elevation, such as lack of infrastructure required for transformative agronomic,
harvesting, and postharvesting operations, new kind of coffee predators, i.e., coffee
leaf rust even now more prevalent in higher elevations too, higher rate of soil
erodibility, hike in input cost, unavailability of higher altitudes in some major
Arabica coffee producing countries, e.g., Brazil, Ethiopia, Colombia [209]. Several
authors stated the adaption and mitigation strategies to cope with the climate change
and its impacts on coffee productivity, quality, and socioeconomic conditions. The
detail of these adaption and mitigation strategies is listed in the Table 4 (also add
crop insurance, build coffee collaboration network, restructuring of coffee chain,
financial transfer tools (payments for ecosystem or watershed services) and policy
making).
2.6
Sun Versus Shade or Agro-Ecosystems
Coffee Arabica and coffee Robusta accounted for world’s 99% coffee production.
Both coffee varieties have natural inclination and adaptability to produce superior
quality coffee under the shade only as two varieties historically evolved from
understory forests of Africa [185]. In Latin America, in 1950s, most of farmers
began to produce sun grown coffee, in order to meet the global consumption
demand, by substituting the shade with other costly inputs like fertilizers, herbicides,
pesticides, large plant spacing, etc. [219]. The outcomes of this trend are taken to be
severe as it not only left its toxic effects on soil and water, irrespective of high yield,
but also occasionally produced low quality coffee. The choice of sun or shade grown
coffee systems (agro-ecosystems), with their own pros and cons too, largely depends
upon the understanding the prevailing environmental factors (resources, conservation, biodiversity, stability, organic production, byproducts, etc.), framers priorities
(yield or quality, etc.), regional policies (eco-friendly coffee production, organic
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
679