influence the fertilization and coffee vulnerability to insect pest and diseases.
Rainfall encourages maintaining the soil moisture level necessary to uptake the
nutrients from soil after first fertilization. In case of delayed or no precipitation,
nutrients cannot be part of plants to be mature and fruits badly affecting both the
yield and quality of coffee fruit and beans [178]. But during coffee fruit maturation
and ripening stages, a high precipitation (300 mm/month) and high temperature
(>24
C) may enhance the crop susceptibility to fungal diseases [181]. Barbosa et al.
[182] also noted that among various other reasons of low scores of cupping quality
of coffee high humidity index and rainfall during fruit ripening are major causes.
Oberthür et al. [34] registered the ties between the various environmental factors and
inherent coffee characteristics. He defined that annual precipitation, dew point,
diurnal temperature ranges, and altitude favor the development of acidity, whereas
dew point, daily mean temperature, and altitude support the flavor development in
mid- to high altitude ranges with less degree of slope. On the other hand, in the same
ranges of altitudes but with high degree of slope, he discovered that mean annual
diurnal temperature range, dry months, annual precipitation range, and degree of
slope are key factors for acidity while annual rainfall rate, dry months, and slope
degree are critical for flavor determination. Trigonelline and caffeine contents of
coffee beans are found less in the mid- to high altitude regions having less annual
precipitation rate, high diurnal temperature ranges, and mean annual temperature
[34]. Camargo et al. [183] also previously quoted that regions with relatively high
mean annual temperature usually produced under-quality coffee beans as we know,
now, that altitude and temperature are in negative relations to each other too. The
coffee from mid-heighted altitudes with rainfall below the 1500 mm tends to be
slightly acidic due to high contents of lipids, chlorogenic acid, and sucrose while at
the same time, a contrary relationship was detected between lipid contents and
rainfall [32]. As discussed above a high rate of rainfall, generally more than
1500 mm, is considered fatal due to deteriorating the physical bean quality and
beverage quality and creates the favorable conditions for rust attack. Lipid believed
to play a role in conservation of liquor quality during roasting because lipids form a
protective layer on bean surface preventing the escape of volatile compounds [24].
Rezende et al. [184] also reported the retardation of coffee bean maturation while
irrigation from May to July instead of good productivity trait.
Despite the positive role of drought in flowering synchronization and fruit setting,
any drought or restricted irrigation conditions just before or during seed development can accompany a significant fruit drop and undersized beans [178, 183].
Prolonged drought stress results in stomatal control of transpiration rate than the
general considered osmotic adjustments traits. The resilience to gas exchange with
well relative water contents and growth, rather than elastic or osmotic adjustments,
showed us the “avoiding drought” somewhat than tolerating it [185, 186]. Abiotic
stresses, i.e., drought, temperature, frost, etc., may lead to osmatic and oxidative
stresses, which may result in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These
ROS can initiate the damage of tissues not only in vegetative parts but also in fruits,
seeds, and reproductive parts via lipid peroxidation, bleaching of pigments and
protein, and inactivation of various physiological important enzymes. The saturation
672
A. Hameed et al.
Rainfall encourages maintaining the soil moisture level necessary to uptake the
nutrients from soil after first fertilization. In case of delayed or no precipitation,
nutrients cannot be part of plants to be mature and fruits badly affecting both the
yield and quality of coffee fruit and beans [178]. But during coffee fruit maturation
and ripening stages, a high precipitation (300 mm/month) and high temperature
(>24
C) may enhance the crop susceptibility to fungal diseases [181]. Barbosa et al.
[182] also noted that among various other reasons of low scores of cupping quality
of coffee high humidity index and rainfall during fruit ripening are major causes.
Oberthür et al. [34] registered the ties between the various environmental factors and
inherent coffee characteristics. He defined that annual precipitation, dew point,
diurnal temperature ranges, and altitude favor the development of acidity, whereas
dew point, daily mean temperature, and altitude support the flavor development in
mid- to high altitude ranges with less degree of slope. On the other hand, in the same
ranges of altitudes but with high degree of slope, he discovered that mean annual
diurnal temperature range, dry months, annual precipitation range, and degree of
slope are key factors for acidity while annual rainfall rate, dry months, and slope
degree are critical for flavor determination. Trigonelline and caffeine contents of
coffee beans are found less in the mid- to high altitude regions having less annual
precipitation rate, high diurnal temperature ranges, and mean annual temperature
[34]. Camargo et al. [183] also previously quoted that regions with relatively high
mean annual temperature usually produced under-quality coffee beans as we know,
now, that altitude and temperature are in negative relations to each other too. The
coffee from mid-heighted altitudes with rainfall below the 1500 mm tends to be
slightly acidic due to high contents of lipids, chlorogenic acid, and sucrose while at
the same time, a contrary relationship was detected between lipid contents and
rainfall [32]. As discussed above a high rate of rainfall, generally more than
1500 mm, is considered fatal due to deteriorating the physical bean quality and
beverage quality and creates the favorable conditions for rust attack. Lipid believed
to play a role in conservation of liquor quality during roasting because lipids form a
protective layer on bean surface preventing the escape of volatile compounds [24].
Rezende et al. [184] also reported the retardation of coffee bean maturation while
irrigation from May to July instead of good productivity trait.
Despite the positive role of drought in flowering synchronization and fruit setting,
any drought or restricted irrigation conditions just before or during seed development can accompany a significant fruit drop and undersized beans [178, 183].
Prolonged drought stress results in stomatal control of transpiration rate than the
general considered osmotic adjustments traits. The resilience to gas exchange with
well relative water contents and growth, rather than elastic or osmotic adjustments,
showed us the “avoiding drought” somewhat than tolerating it [185, 186]. Abiotic
stresses, i.e., drought, temperature, frost, etc., may lead to osmatic and oxidative
stresses, which may result in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These
ROS can initiate the damage of tissues not only in vegetative parts but also in fruits,
seeds, and reproductive parts via lipid peroxidation, bleaching of pigments and
protein, and inactivation of various physiological important enzymes. The saturation
672
A. Hameed et al.