crop of high altitude, sloppy mountainous, and hilly inter-tropical areas with distinct
dry and wet seasons. In these regions, wet season is characterized by precipitation
rate of around 1500–2000 ppm per annum and consists of 7–9 months with atmospheric humidity near or equal to saturation, whereas in dry seasons the rate of
precipitation befalls below 50 ppm and entailed only for 3–4 months concurring with
the coolest period. Rainfall and sunshine distributions have a strong influence on
flowering, bean expansion, and ripening. The susceptibility and rainfall requirement
of high altitude grown C. arabica differs from low to mid-heighted hilly areas
cultivated C. robusta due to difference in effective rainfall, evapotranspiration rate,
topography, soil moisture holding capacity, soil texture, soil infiltration rate, and soil
runoff. During rainy seasons, the level of rainwater exceeds the evapotranspiration
and evaporation as compared to dry periods where water demand is high than water
availability which can compromise the yield and fruits’ physical and compositional
quality by affecting its vegetative and fruit growth, development and maturation
stages, in case water requirement is not met by irrigation. Although Robusta can
withstand high rainfall greater than >2000 ppm, this high rainfall throughout year
may limit the yield and quality of beans due to absence of required dry spell, less
humid environment, temperature required for onset of flowering, beans development, bean size, and for cherry maturation stages [178]. The numbers of flowers
determine the quantity of fruits on a tree which in turn influence the beans size
(grade) and physical quality attribute of coffee beans. Onset of flowering is of much
importance that an earlier or delayed flowering may result in earlier or delayed
subsequent phases including harvesting during which they may be devoid of optimum required temperature, rainfall, humidity, nutrients, etc., and hence devastating
the quality of coffee. Further, the earlier or delayed harvesting may worsen the
successive drying processes, luckily if harvesting did not coincide with rainy period,
due to lack of facilities in short period of time [179]. After this the other drivers
which govern the flowering and beans quantity and quality too are (a) 30 days water
stress per quarter of year required for flowers buds to get mature, (b) a certain level of
humidity and temperature less than 24
C suitable for anthesis, (c) “star flower”
phenomenon which happens due to failure of pollination if humidity is less than 20%
and temperature is above 24
C, and (d) stormy and strong windy weather during
flowering [178, 179]. In developing countries or irrigated coffee fields, flowering
induction and extent of flowering can be controlled by deliberately irrigated water
stressing after the heavily irrigation. Masarirambi et al. [178] recommended the 25 L
water per plant with irrigation timing 25cb for optimum amount of flowering and
ripe berries. Higher number of irrigation timings (i.e., 30cb, 35cb) may result in the
higher number of ripe berries unsuitable for immediate successive operations. In
Asia pacific, Amarasinghe et al. [180] also registered how to reduce irrigation water
consumption by starting the irrigation in January after one to one half month of dry
stress for flowering induction. Amarasinghe and his team concluded that reduced
irrigation supply up to 150 mm (one round in 4 dry months) can receive an
acceptable yield (i.e., 4000 kg/Ha) and any additional irrigation beyond 287 mm
would increase the production cost along yield and quality drawbacks. After
flowering induction and flowering quantity, precipitation, humidity, and temperature
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
671
dry and wet seasons. In these regions, wet season is characterized by precipitation
rate of around 1500–2000 ppm per annum and consists of 7–9 months with atmospheric humidity near or equal to saturation, whereas in dry seasons the rate of
precipitation befalls below 50 ppm and entailed only for 3–4 months concurring with
the coolest period. Rainfall and sunshine distributions have a strong influence on
flowering, bean expansion, and ripening. The susceptibility and rainfall requirement
of high altitude grown C. arabica differs from low to mid-heighted hilly areas
cultivated C. robusta due to difference in effective rainfall, evapotranspiration rate,
topography, soil moisture holding capacity, soil texture, soil infiltration rate, and soil
runoff. During rainy seasons, the level of rainwater exceeds the evapotranspiration
and evaporation as compared to dry periods where water demand is high than water
availability which can compromise the yield and fruits’ physical and compositional
quality by affecting its vegetative and fruit growth, development and maturation
stages, in case water requirement is not met by irrigation. Although Robusta can
withstand high rainfall greater than >2000 ppm, this high rainfall throughout year
may limit the yield and quality of beans due to absence of required dry spell, less
humid environment, temperature required for onset of flowering, beans development, bean size, and for cherry maturation stages [178]. The numbers of flowers
determine the quantity of fruits on a tree which in turn influence the beans size
(grade) and physical quality attribute of coffee beans. Onset of flowering is of much
importance that an earlier or delayed flowering may result in earlier or delayed
subsequent phases including harvesting during which they may be devoid of optimum required temperature, rainfall, humidity, nutrients, etc., and hence devastating
the quality of coffee. Further, the earlier or delayed harvesting may worsen the
successive drying processes, luckily if harvesting did not coincide with rainy period,
due to lack of facilities in short period of time [179]. After this the other drivers
which govern the flowering and beans quantity and quality too are (a) 30 days water
stress per quarter of year required for flowers buds to get mature, (b) a certain level of
humidity and temperature less than 24
C suitable for anthesis, (c) “star flower”
phenomenon which happens due to failure of pollination if humidity is less than 20%
and temperature is above 24
C, and (d) stormy and strong windy weather during
flowering [178, 179]. In developing countries or irrigated coffee fields, flowering
induction and extent of flowering can be controlled by deliberately irrigated water
stressing after the heavily irrigation. Masarirambi et al. [178] recommended the 25 L
water per plant with irrigation timing 25cb for optimum amount of flowering and
ripe berries. Higher number of irrigation timings (i.e., 30cb, 35cb) may result in the
higher number of ripe berries unsuitable for immediate successive operations. In
Asia pacific, Amarasinghe et al. [180] also registered how to reduce irrigation water
consumption by starting the irrigation in January after one to one half month of dry
stress for flowering induction. Amarasinghe and his team concluded that reduced
irrigation supply up to 150 mm (one round in 4 dry months) can receive an
acceptable yield (i.e., 4000 kg/Ha) and any additional irrigation beyond 287 mm
would increase the production cost along yield and quality drawbacks. After
flowering induction and flowering quantity, precipitation, humidity, and temperature
27 “Coffee Bean-Related” Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee
671