4 Case Studies of Diffuse-Based Source Pollution
The unidentified movement of several organic contaminants that include active
pharmaceutical compounds enters the soil zone and aquatic environments by numerous direct or indirect routes, with bioactive sludge being one of the furthermost
essential diffuse sources [7, 50]. The excessive utilization of bioactive sludge, as a
biofertilizer, in the agricultural settings is a dominant diffuse-based source of the
pharmaceuticals which can then run off to the ground and enters the groundwater
and freshwater resources [15]. Generally, bioactive sludge, also termed as biosolid
which is commonly used as a biofertilizer, is a type of active residue obtained from
the leftovers of the wastewater treatment plants. Such sewage sludge, as a
biofertilizer, is typically used for soil amendment. For instance, it has been estimated
that around 8 Â 106 dry tons of sludge are produced, and 50% of the obtained
sewage sludge is applied to the agricultural land in America. However, the
maximum concentration of the pharmaceuticals found in the biosolid, i.e., thiabendazole, is 5,000 μg/kg, and other varieties of pharmaceuticals, e.g., caffeine and
carbamazepine, can also be found in the sewage sludge. Owing to this high concentration of active pharmaceutical compounds and high solubility of halogenated
hydrocarbon in sewage sludge, it leads to groundwater pollution from the application
of biosolid to soil and surface runoff of the biosolid containing soil [15]. The
controlled or uncontrolled excessive consumption of biologically active compounds
in the agricultural settings is the foremost contributor, through activities such as
agricultural runoff, the application of fertilizers and pesticides, tillage practices,
habitat alteration, animal waste, and soil erosion. Thus, far more complex challenges
are being posed by the diffuse-based source of the pharmaceuticals, which is also
known as nonpoint source pollution. Considering the complexity, the diffuse-based
source or nonpoint source pollution is a leading water quality problem, in recent
times, as compared to the point-based source pollution. Moreover, the diffuse-based
source or nonpoint source pollution from agriculture and the urban periphery is a
most intractable dimension [51, 52], which is progressively being recognized by
policymakers and regulatory authorities. According to the European Union Article
11(3)(h), the Water Framework Directive sets out lowest compliance requirements,
i.e., “for diffuse sources liable to cause pollution, measures to prevent or control the
input of pollutants. Controls may take the form of a prerequisite for prior regulation,
e.g., a proscription on the entry of pollutants into water matrices, prior authorization
based on general binding rules where such a prerequisite is not otherwise provided
for under Community legislation” [53].
5 Pharmaceuticals’ Fate in the Environment
Owing to the complications of diffuse-based source or nonpoint source pollution, the
real information on the fate of various pharmaceuticals in the environment is limited
[54–56]. Another possible reason behind this vague fate of pharmaceuticals in the
42
R. Parra-Saldivar et al.
The unidentified movement of several organic contaminants that include active
pharmaceutical compounds enters the soil zone and aquatic environments by numerous direct or indirect routes, with bioactive sludge being one of the furthermost
essential diffuse sources [7, 50]. The excessive utilization of bioactive sludge, as a
biofertilizer, in the agricultural settings is a dominant diffuse-based source of the
pharmaceuticals which can then run off to the ground and enters the groundwater
and freshwater resources [15]. Generally, bioactive sludge, also termed as biosolid
which is commonly used as a biofertilizer, is a type of active residue obtained from
the leftovers of the wastewater treatment plants. Such sewage sludge, as a
biofertilizer, is typically used for soil amendment. For instance, it has been estimated
that around 8 Â 106 dry tons of sludge are produced, and 50% of the obtained
sewage sludge is applied to the agricultural land in America. However, the
maximum concentration of the pharmaceuticals found in the biosolid, i.e., thiabendazole, is 5,000 μg/kg, and other varieties of pharmaceuticals, e.g., caffeine and
carbamazepine, can also be found in the sewage sludge. Owing to this high concentration of active pharmaceutical compounds and high solubility of halogenated
hydrocarbon in sewage sludge, it leads to groundwater pollution from the application
of biosolid to soil and surface runoff of the biosolid containing soil [15]. The
controlled or uncontrolled excessive consumption of biologically active compounds
in the agricultural settings is the foremost contributor, through activities such as
agricultural runoff, the application of fertilizers and pesticides, tillage practices,
habitat alteration, animal waste, and soil erosion. Thus, far more complex challenges
are being posed by the diffuse-based source of the pharmaceuticals, which is also
known as nonpoint source pollution. Considering the complexity, the diffuse-based
source or nonpoint source pollution is a leading water quality problem, in recent
times, as compared to the point-based source pollution. Moreover, the diffuse-based
source or nonpoint source pollution from agriculture and the urban periphery is a
most intractable dimension [51, 52], which is progressively being recognized by
policymakers and regulatory authorities. According to the European Union Article
11(3)(h), the Water Framework Directive sets out lowest compliance requirements,
i.e., “for diffuse sources liable to cause pollution, measures to prevent or control the
input of pollutants. Controls may take the form of a prerequisite for prior regulation,
e.g., a proscription on the entry of pollutants into water matrices, prior authorization
based on general binding rules where such a prerequisite is not otherwise provided
for under Community legislation” [53].
5 Pharmaceuticals’ Fate in the Environment
Owing to the complications of diffuse-based source or nonpoint source pollution, the
real information on the fate of various pharmaceuticals in the environment is limited
[54–56]. Another possible reason behind this vague fate of pharmaceuticals in the
42
R. Parra-Saldivar et al.