environment could be the low-level volatility of pharmaceuticals. Therefore, the
main distribution/transportation of pharmaceuticals in the environment majorly
occurs by aqueous transport via a point-based source route. The occurrence of
pharmaceutical-related ECs in the environment is low but consistent/persistent.
However, pharmaceutical-related ECs are ubiquitous in aqueous matrices. Such
consistency/persistence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is mainly
because the release rate is higher than the transformation rate [56, 57]. From the
persistence viewpoint, sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones are the most persistent
and then macrolides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and β-lactam antibiotics.
Among them, sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones are easier to adsorb than
macrolides, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides, and β-lactams by the soils and sediments, which make them the most persistent [58].
The major transformation fate of biologically active pharmaceuticals occurs in
WWTPs to soils via sludge usage as biofertilizer. However, such WWTP-based
transformation significantly depends on the overall sewage composition, treatment
conditions, and the design and operational factors of the wastewater treatment
process [59]. The ultimate fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs and/or their active
residues/metabolites in WWTPs could be mineralization to carbon dioxide and
water. In the case of lipophilic-type pharmaceutical compounds, the end fate is
adsorption on suspended solids or release in the effluent as broken-down residues
or as degraded products [60]. From WWTP effluent sources, the persistent pharmaceuticals can afterward be transported to groundwater and/or surface water matrices,
whereas the pharmaceutical products used in the aquaculture are directly released
into the surface water bodies [61–63].
6 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
In conclusion, based on the above-discussed literature with suitable examples,
environmental contamination with a range of emerging anthropogenic pollutants
has become a global problem. This chapter is of particular interest, which spotlights
a diverse source of pharmaceuticals such as analgesics/anti-inflammatories (narcotic
analgesics, nonnarcotic analgesics, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAID)) and synthetic antibiotic (β-lactams, macrolides, fluoroquinolones,
aminoglycosides, sulfonamide, and tetracycline). Some of them are β-lactams
(amoxicillin and penicillin)), cardiovascular pharmaceuticals (β-blockers/diuretics),
estrogens and hormonal compounds (estriol, estradiol, estrone, and 17α-ethinylestradiol), and antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine) in the water matrices.
A brief transmission fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs and their metabolized
compounds to soils, groundwater, and surface water bodies is also given from
point-based source and nonpoint-based source pollution. The growing water contamination with a controlled or uncontrolled discharge of incompletely or inadequately treated industrial wastes and WWTP effluents harshly distressing the whole
living ecosystem. Considering the above-discussed scenarios, there is a dire need to
Sources of Pharmaceuticals in Water
43
main distribution/transportation of pharmaceuticals in the environment majorly
occurs by aqueous transport via a point-based source route. The occurrence of
pharmaceutical-related ECs in the environment is low but consistent/persistent.
However, pharmaceutical-related ECs are ubiquitous in aqueous matrices. Such
consistency/persistence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is mainly
because the release rate is higher than the transformation rate [56, 57]. From the
persistence viewpoint, sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones are the most persistent
and then macrolides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and β-lactam antibiotics.
Among them, sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones are easier to adsorb than
macrolides, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides, and β-lactams by the soils and sediments, which make them the most persistent [58].
The major transformation fate of biologically active pharmaceuticals occurs in
WWTPs to soils via sludge usage as biofertilizer. However, such WWTP-based
transformation significantly depends on the overall sewage composition, treatment
conditions, and the design and operational factors of the wastewater treatment
process [59]. The ultimate fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs and/or their active
residues/metabolites in WWTPs could be mineralization to carbon dioxide and
water. In the case of lipophilic-type pharmaceutical compounds, the end fate is
adsorption on suspended solids or release in the effluent as broken-down residues
or as degraded products [60]. From WWTP effluent sources, the persistent pharmaceuticals can afterward be transported to groundwater and/or surface water matrices,
whereas the pharmaceutical products used in the aquaculture are directly released
into the surface water bodies [61–63].
6 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
In conclusion, based on the above-discussed literature with suitable examples,
environmental contamination with a range of emerging anthropogenic pollutants
has become a global problem. This chapter is of particular interest, which spotlights
a diverse source of pharmaceuticals such as analgesics/anti-inflammatories (narcotic
analgesics, nonnarcotic analgesics, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAID)) and synthetic antibiotic (β-lactams, macrolides, fluoroquinolones,
aminoglycosides, sulfonamide, and tetracycline). Some of them are β-lactams
(amoxicillin and penicillin)), cardiovascular pharmaceuticals (β-blockers/diuretics),
estrogens and hormonal compounds (estriol, estradiol, estrone, and 17α-ethinylestradiol), and antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine) in the water matrices.
A brief transmission fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs and their metabolized
compounds to soils, groundwater, and surface water bodies is also given from
point-based source and nonpoint-based source pollution. The growing water contamination with a controlled or uncontrolled discharge of incompletely or inadequately treated industrial wastes and WWTP effluents harshly distressing the whole
living ecosystem. Considering the above-discussed scenarios, there is a dire need to
Sources of Pharmaceuticals in Water
43