concentrations. So far, several detection and treatment processes have been proposed
and exploited against numerous pharmaceutical-related ECs. The useful and side
effects of pharmaceutical-related compounds have been extensively inspected.
Owing to this substantial research gap, the sources and environmental persistence
of pharmaceutical-related ECs and their direct/indirect adverse effects have now
been the topic of intensive studies. From the surface water perspective, wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) are the major source of pharmaceutical-related ECs. The
current chapter spotlights the widespread occurrence, numerous sources, and transportation fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs in water matrices.
Keywords Aquatic environment, Biological risks, Emerging contaminants,
Hazardous compounds, Pharmaceuticals, Sources, Toxicity, Transmission fate,
Wastewater treatment
1 Introduction: Problem Statement and Opportunities
In recent years, the term “emerging contaminants (ECs)” has raised the ecological
concerns and public attention to the presence of toxic entities in the aquatic environment. Such harmful entities, with particular reference to the occurrence of
pharmaceutical-related ECs, are mainly introduced in our water matrices through
various industrial and domestic practices. A constant rise in the global population
and urbanization and their associated increase in the consumption of pharmaceuticals have redirected the researches’ attention. In addition, wide-ranging water
contamination by pharmaceutical compounds has become a growing worldwide
concern [1, 2]. The concentrations of persistent organic pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and their metabolites, are continuously rising in the natural environment
due to human activities [3–6]. The most practiced pharmaceuticals include
analgesics/anti-inflammatories and synthetic antibiotic compounds. Some of
them are β-lactams (amoxicillin and penicillin), cardiovascular pharmaceuticals
(β-blockers/diuretics), estrogens and hormonal compounds (estriol, estradiol,
estrone, and 17α-ethinylestradiol), and antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine) [7].
The major source of pharmaceutical-related ECs is the treated/untreated effluents
of WWTPs. WWTPs are not designed to eliminate environmental pollutants
completely, and thus they can percolate through WWTPs and incorporated into the
aquatic systems (streams and rivers) [8]. For example, the contents of diclofenac
(an anti-inflammatory drug) and carbamazepine reached 0.99 and 0.95 μg/L, respectively, in WWTP effluents [9]. Particularly, a detectable level of diclofenac has been
identified in drinking, surface, and groundwaters in the range of ng/L to μg/L in
Sweden, Spain, Switzerland, and the Baltic region [10–12]. Apart from this, other
pharmaceuticals, including tramadol, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, oxazepam, and
naproxen, have also recently been detected in drinking water supplies in some
34
R. Parra-Saldivar et al.
and exploited against numerous pharmaceutical-related ECs. The useful and side
effects of pharmaceutical-related compounds have been extensively inspected.
Owing to this substantial research gap, the sources and environmental persistence
of pharmaceutical-related ECs and their direct/indirect adverse effects have now
been the topic of intensive studies. From the surface water perspective, wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) are the major source of pharmaceutical-related ECs. The
current chapter spotlights the widespread occurrence, numerous sources, and transportation fate of pharmaceutical-related ECs in water matrices.
Keywords Aquatic environment, Biological risks, Emerging contaminants,
Hazardous compounds, Pharmaceuticals, Sources, Toxicity, Transmission fate,
Wastewater treatment
1 Introduction: Problem Statement and Opportunities
In recent years, the term “emerging contaminants (ECs)” has raised the ecological
concerns and public attention to the presence of toxic entities in the aquatic environment. Such harmful entities, with particular reference to the occurrence of
pharmaceutical-related ECs, are mainly introduced in our water matrices through
various industrial and domestic practices. A constant rise in the global population
and urbanization and their associated increase in the consumption of pharmaceuticals have redirected the researches’ attention. In addition, wide-ranging water
contamination by pharmaceutical compounds has become a growing worldwide
concern [1, 2]. The concentrations of persistent organic pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and their metabolites, are continuously rising in the natural environment
due to human activities [3–6]. The most practiced pharmaceuticals include
analgesics/anti-inflammatories and synthetic antibiotic compounds. Some of
them are β-lactams (amoxicillin and penicillin), cardiovascular pharmaceuticals
(β-blockers/diuretics), estrogens and hormonal compounds (estriol, estradiol,
estrone, and 17α-ethinylestradiol), and antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine) [7].
The major source of pharmaceutical-related ECs is the treated/untreated effluents
of WWTPs. WWTPs are not designed to eliminate environmental pollutants
completely, and thus they can percolate through WWTPs and incorporated into the
aquatic systems (streams and rivers) [8]. For example, the contents of diclofenac
(an anti-inflammatory drug) and carbamazepine reached 0.99 and 0.95 μg/L, respectively, in WWTP effluents [9]. Particularly, a detectable level of diclofenac has been
identified in drinking, surface, and groundwaters in the range of ng/L to μg/L in
Sweden, Spain, Switzerland, and the Baltic region [10–12]. Apart from this, other
pharmaceuticals, including tramadol, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, oxazepam, and
naproxen, have also recently been detected in drinking water supplies in some
34
R. Parra-Saldivar et al.