evaluated the uptake of pharmaceuticals from agricultural field production systems.
The work described below is summarised in Table 1.
4.2.3 Field Studies: USA
The Southwest of the USA is composed of arid and semi-arid climates and large
population centres putting massive pressure on scarce freshwater resources. Increasingly, the reuse of wastewater has been adopted as an alternative for irrigation. One
of the earliest field trials in the USA was conducted by Jones-Lepp et al. [17] where a
range of crops that included bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), cantaloupe (Cucumis
melo var. cantalupensis), watermelons (Citrullus lanatus), carrots and spinach
(Spinacia oleracea) were irrigated under field conditions with treated municipal
wastewater from the city of Tucson, Arizona. Root and shoot portions of plant
tissues were analysed for the detection of eight emerging contaminants that included
four antibiotics (azithromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin and clindamycin) as
well as methamphetamine, MDMA, pseudoephedrine and the industrial flavouring
agent dimethylphenethylamine (DMPEA). Only DMPEA was detected in any of the
edible plant tissues, with the highest accumulation at 180 ng/g in watermelon.
Additional study in the USA was carried out by Franklin et al. [21] using the “Living
Filter” water reuse site in University Park, Pennsylvania. In this study, wheat was
grown under a treated wastewater spray irrigation system on approximately
516 acres of mixed-use land. Four pharmaceutical compounds including sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ofloxacin and carbamazepine were studied both on the
uptake and surface deposition of wheat grain and straw. Low-level residues of
these pharmaceuticals were both detected on the surface and concentrated within
the plant tissues with ofloxacin concentration as high as 10.2 ng/g in straw and
2.28 ng/g in the grain.
4.2.4 Field Studies: Mediterranean Region
The Mediterranean region of Europe is characterised by its limited freshwater
resources and intense summer light intensity making wastewater reuse an appealing
option. Tertiary treated wastewater from two wastewater treatment facilities in
Cyprus provided irrigation water for 3 years of study investigating the uptake of
diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in tomatoes grown under field conditions [24]. The results of this study demonstrate a key research gap that is not
accounted for in typical short-term laboratory exposure experiments. Accumulation
of all three pharmaceuticals increased in tomato fruits over the course of the three
growing seasons, with highest concentrations of all three found in tomatoes
harvested in the final year at 11.6, 5.3 and 3.4 ng/g for diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole
and trimethoprim, respectively. This is noteworthy because in real wastewater reuse
applications, the infrastructure investments and lack of alternative irrigation sources
198
L. J. Carter et al.
The work described below is summarised in Table 1.
4.2.3 Field Studies: USA
The Southwest of the USA is composed of arid and semi-arid climates and large
population centres putting massive pressure on scarce freshwater resources. Increasingly, the reuse of wastewater has been adopted as an alternative for irrigation. One
of the earliest field trials in the USA was conducted by Jones-Lepp et al. [17] where a
range of crops that included bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), cantaloupe (Cucumis
melo var. cantalupensis), watermelons (Citrullus lanatus), carrots and spinach
(Spinacia oleracea) were irrigated under field conditions with treated municipal
wastewater from the city of Tucson, Arizona. Root and shoot portions of plant
tissues were analysed for the detection of eight emerging contaminants that included
four antibiotics (azithromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin and clindamycin) as
well as methamphetamine, MDMA, pseudoephedrine and the industrial flavouring
agent dimethylphenethylamine (DMPEA). Only DMPEA was detected in any of the
edible plant tissues, with the highest accumulation at 180 ng/g in watermelon.
Additional study in the USA was carried out by Franklin et al. [21] using the “Living
Filter” water reuse site in University Park, Pennsylvania. In this study, wheat was
grown under a treated wastewater spray irrigation system on approximately
516 acres of mixed-use land. Four pharmaceutical compounds including sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ofloxacin and carbamazepine were studied both on the
uptake and surface deposition of wheat grain and straw. Low-level residues of
these pharmaceuticals were both detected on the surface and concentrated within
the plant tissues with ofloxacin concentration as high as 10.2 ng/g in straw and
2.28 ng/g in the grain.
4.2.4 Field Studies: Mediterranean Region
The Mediterranean region of Europe is characterised by its limited freshwater
resources and intense summer light intensity making wastewater reuse an appealing
option. Tertiary treated wastewater from two wastewater treatment facilities in
Cyprus provided irrigation water for 3 years of study investigating the uptake of
diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in tomatoes grown under field conditions [24]. The results of this study demonstrate a key research gap that is not
accounted for in typical short-term laboratory exposure experiments. Accumulation
of all three pharmaceuticals increased in tomato fruits over the course of the three
growing seasons, with highest concentrations of all three found in tomatoes
harvested in the final year at 11.6, 5.3 and 3.4 ng/g for diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole
and trimethoprim, respectively. This is noteworthy because in real wastewater reuse
applications, the infrastructure investments and lack of alternative irrigation sources
198
L. J. Carter et al.