will necessarily result in continued wastewater applications on the scale of multiple
growing seasons.
Whereas the studies described above utilised greenhouse laboratory experimental
designs, Martinez-Piernas et al. [18] investigated the uptake of 60 compounds in
tomatoes grown in industrial greenhouse production systems with a 10-year history
of wastewater irrigation using effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant
in Spain. Soil in these systems had not been replaced over the course of the 10-year
history. Results showed the highest concentrations of most pharmaceuticals in
tomato leaves as compared to tomato fruits. Concentrations detected did not pose
a human health concern following the toxicological threshold concern approach.
Whilst most studies have considered the intentional use of treated wastewater for
irrigation, Santiago-Martin and colleagues identified an unintentional exposure route
with surface water highly impacted by wastewater treatment effluent upstream is
used for crop irrigation [14]. Though their results showed insignificant risk to human
health, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, carbamazepine and nicotine were all detected in
maize grown from this impacted water source.
4.2.5 Field Studies: North Africa and the Middle East (MENA)
It is not surprising that the MENA region has become an early adopter of wastewater
due in large part to the lack of freshwater resources and its arid climate. As
previously discussed, Israel has made use of treated wastewater on a large scale
now with over 50% of irrigation water coming from treated wastewater. Other
countries in the region are utilising this alternative to precious freshwater resources.
Pico et al. [11] investigated the accumulation of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in
seven vegetable types (cabbage (Brassica oleracea), barley, green beans, eggplants
(Solanum melongena), chilli (Capsicum annuum), tomato and zucchini) from fields
irrigated with treated wastewater in Saudi Arabia. Their analysis revealed the
presence of six pharmaceutical compounds (atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine,
10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, gemfibrozil and naproxen) in samples taken from fields.
Importantly, they also detected a number of pesticide residues in plant tissues
demonstrating that chemical exposome is an increasingly complex mixture of
compounds from multiple sources. In Jordan, the uptake of 28 micro-pollutants,
including many pharmaceuticals as well as the metabolites of carbamazepine, was
studied in ten different field-grown vegetable species [19]. The vegetables sampled
included carrot, lettuce, potato, zucchini, tomato, pepper, cabbage, parsley, rucola
and eggplant all grown in a drip irrigation system. Pharmaceuticals including
caffeine, lamotrigine, gabapentin, ciprofloxacin and gemfibrozil, along with carbamazepine and six carbamazepine metabolites, were all detected in plant tissues.
Based on this analysis, it was shown that accumulation in edible plants tissues
followed leafy shoot > root > fruit edible vegetables. In terms of human health
implications, the antibiotic ciprofloxacin and the carbamazepine metabolite, 10,11epoxycarbamazepine, posed the most potential risk to human health.
Uptake and Effects of Pharmaceuticals in the Soil-Plant-Earthworm System
199
growing seasons.
Whereas the studies described above utilised greenhouse laboratory experimental
designs, Martinez-Piernas et al. [18] investigated the uptake of 60 compounds in
tomatoes grown in industrial greenhouse production systems with a 10-year history
of wastewater irrigation using effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant
in Spain. Soil in these systems had not been replaced over the course of the 10-year
history. Results showed the highest concentrations of most pharmaceuticals in
tomato leaves as compared to tomato fruits. Concentrations detected did not pose
a human health concern following the toxicological threshold concern approach.
Whilst most studies have considered the intentional use of treated wastewater for
irrigation, Santiago-Martin and colleagues identified an unintentional exposure route
with surface water highly impacted by wastewater treatment effluent upstream is
used for crop irrigation [14]. Though their results showed insignificant risk to human
health, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, carbamazepine and nicotine were all detected in
maize grown from this impacted water source.
4.2.5 Field Studies: North Africa and the Middle East (MENA)
It is not surprising that the MENA region has become an early adopter of wastewater
due in large part to the lack of freshwater resources and its arid climate. As
previously discussed, Israel has made use of treated wastewater on a large scale
now with over 50% of irrigation water coming from treated wastewater. Other
countries in the region are utilising this alternative to precious freshwater resources.
Pico et al. [11] investigated the accumulation of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in
seven vegetable types (cabbage (Brassica oleracea), barley, green beans, eggplants
(Solanum melongena), chilli (Capsicum annuum), tomato and zucchini) from fields
irrigated with treated wastewater in Saudi Arabia. Their analysis revealed the
presence of six pharmaceutical compounds (atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine,
10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, gemfibrozil and naproxen) in samples taken from fields.
Importantly, they also detected a number of pesticide residues in plant tissues
demonstrating that chemical exposome is an increasingly complex mixture of
compounds from multiple sources. In Jordan, the uptake of 28 micro-pollutants,
including many pharmaceuticals as well as the metabolites of carbamazepine, was
studied in ten different field-grown vegetable species [19]. The vegetables sampled
included carrot, lettuce, potato, zucchini, tomato, pepper, cabbage, parsley, rucola
and eggplant all grown in a drip irrigation system. Pharmaceuticals including
caffeine, lamotrigine, gabapentin, ciprofloxacin and gemfibrozil, along with carbamazepine and six carbamazepine metabolites, were all detected in plant tissues.
Based on this analysis, it was shown that accumulation in edible plants tissues
followed leafy shoot > root > fruit edible vegetables. In terms of human health
implications, the antibiotic ciprofloxacin and the carbamazepine metabolite, 10,11epoxycarbamazepine, posed the most potential risk to human health.
Uptake and Effects of Pharmaceuticals in the Soil-Plant-Earthworm System
199