production with rain-fed water, the uptake of carbamazepine and its metabolite in
wheat tissues confirmed that the sorption was reversible and compounds sorbed to
soil remained available for plant uptake.
This approach was expanded by Goldstein et al. [10] using cucumber and tomato
as model crop species. By comparing freshwater and treated wastewater from an
Israeli wastewater treatment facility fortified with a cocktail of pharmaceuticals
representing a range of physicochemical properties, they showed that the wastewater
matrix helped reduce the bioavailability of pharmaceuticals acting as acids and weak
acids in solution.
4.2.2 Greenhouse Studies: Mediterranean Region
Whilst the situation in Israel has received much of the attention, due in part to the
country’s widespread utilisation of recycled wastewater in agricultural production
for nearly 40 years, other regional scenarios have also been studied. The uptake of
atenolol, carbamazepine and triclosan in three model crops (lettuce, maize and
radish) has been studied in the Mediterranean region [16]. Treatments that included
freshwater, treated wastewater and wastewater fortified with the three compounds at
two different levels (10Â and 100Â) were investigated in outdoor conditions. The
study revealed that uptake and translocation occurred and were dependent not only
on the pharmaceutical physicochemical properties but also on soil properties as well
as plant-specific physiological properties of the model crops. Calderon-Preciado
et al. [22] investigated the uptake of microcontaminants from secondary wastewater
effluent from a wastewater treatment facility in Spain which included six pharmaceuticals (clofibric acid, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, flunixin, naproxen and
diclofenac). Using lettuce and carrots as the model crop species, they tested how
different tertiary treatment options (chlorination and UV disinfection) impacted
uptake. Their results, as demonstrated by principal component analysis, showed
that tertiary treatments were effective in reducing the uptake of non-ionisable
compounds into lettuce. Exposure and uptake from Spanish wastewater-derived
pharmaceuticals was also investigated by Martinez-Piernas et al. [15] who applied
their analytical method of 74 micro-pollutants in numerous plant tissue matrices to
investigate the potential accumulation of these analytes in radish and lettuce following routine irrigation with an urban wastewater from a treatment facility operating
secondary treatment with a conventional activated sludge system. This study
revealed the uptake of nine pharmaceuticals and one metabolite in plant tissues
resulting from irrigation at concentrations as high as 57.6 ng/g with the treated
wastewater.
All previous studies have utilised simplified and controlled systems to evaluate
the uptake and potential food chain transfer of pharmaceuticals in soil-plant systems.
These studies have revealed valuable insights to determine the factors that contribute
to plant uptake as well as to help prioritise compounds that represent the most
significant risk to human exposure. However, comparatively few studies have
Uptake and Effects of Pharmaceuticals in the Soil-Plant-Earthworm System
197
wheat tissues confirmed that the sorption was reversible and compounds sorbed to
soil remained available for plant uptake.
This approach was expanded by Goldstein et al. [10] using cucumber and tomato
as model crop species. By comparing freshwater and treated wastewater from an
Israeli wastewater treatment facility fortified with a cocktail of pharmaceuticals
representing a range of physicochemical properties, they showed that the wastewater
matrix helped reduce the bioavailability of pharmaceuticals acting as acids and weak
acids in solution.
4.2.2 Greenhouse Studies: Mediterranean Region
Whilst the situation in Israel has received much of the attention, due in part to the
country’s widespread utilisation of recycled wastewater in agricultural production
for nearly 40 years, other regional scenarios have also been studied. The uptake of
atenolol, carbamazepine and triclosan in three model crops (lettuce, maize and
radish) has been studied in the Mediterranean region [16]. Treatments that included
freshwater, treated wastewater and wastewater fortified with the three compounds at
two different levels (10Â and 100Â) were investigated in outdoor conditions. The
study revealed that uptake and translocation occurred and were dependent not only
on the pharmaceutical physicochemical properties but also on soil properties as well
as plant-specific physiological properties of the model crops. Calderon-Preciado
et al. [22] investigated the uptake of microcontaminants from secondary wastewater
effluent from a wastewater treatment facility in Spain which included six pharmaceuticals (clofibric acid, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, flunixin, naproxen and
diclofenac). Using lettuce and carrots as the model crop species, they tested how
different tertiary treatment options (chlorination and UV disinfection) impacted
uptake. Their results, as demonstrated by principal component analysis, showed
that tertiary treatments were effective in reducing the uptake of non-ionisable
compounds into lettuce. Exposure and uptake from Spanish wastewater-derived
pharmaceuticals was also investigated by Martinez-Piernas et al. [15] who applied
their analytical method of 74 micro-pollutants in numerous plant tissue matrices to
investigate the potential accumulation of these analytes in radish and lettuce following routine irrigation with an urban wastewater from a treatment facility operating
secondary treatment with a conventional activated sludge system. This study
revealed the uptake of nine pharmaceuticals and one metabolite in plant tissues
resulting from irrigation at concentrations as high as 57.6 ng/g with the treated
wastewater.
All previous studies have utilised simplified and controlled systems to evaluate
the uptake and potential food chain transfer of pharmaceuticals in soil-plant systems.
These studies have revealed valuable insights to determine the factors that contribute
to plant uptake as well as to help prioritise compounds that represent the most
significant risk to human exposure. However, comparatively few studies have
Uptake and Effects of Pharmaceuticals in the Soil-Plant-Earthworm System
197