discovered that 15–25 million tonnes of citrus wastes were
generated each year from juice industry alone and a huge
amount from poultry waste. They further explained that
feathers have very strong keratin compound with resistible
proteins capable of generating biogas under different biological and enzymatic conditions. Bacillus megaterium strain
was shown to possess high keratinase activity capable of
degrading keratin in feather to generate methane through
anaerobic digestion.
Abu et al. (2012) revealed that in Palestine farmers have
lamented over the hardship posed by generation of waste
close to their farm site and reduction in supply of energy.
Studies have shown that energy in the form of biogas can be
generated from poultry manure. In their study, increase in
biogas generation was estimated to about 88%, hence economic benefits can be expected if proper investment is
channeled to it due to adequate supply of raw materials.
Khoufi et al. (2015) revealed that energy shortage and climate change seem to be the world’s agenda recently. This
has generated a lot of concerns from relevant stakeholders,
making them to think of alternative solutions. The generation of biogas from poultry waste is now accepted as a novel
source of renewable energy with little or no effect on the
environment, cheap and readily available. Every part of
chicken is now being utilized for various valued produce.
The authors described the anaerobic fermentation procedures
commonly utilized for the bioconversion of chicken waste
into different organic acids and biogas. In addition, the slurry
part again offers rich supplements for soil as biofertilizers
(Joardar and Rahman 2018).
Nurdiawati et al. (2019) revealed that the gross output of
poultry waste in Palestine is enormously huge contributing a
major concern, hence the need to deploy effective management protocols. Khoiyangbam et al. (2004) revealed that
feather, a poultry waste, is known to be a very good source
of amino acids and proteins such as protein hydrolysates,
and hence has become attractive to scientific communities in
recent times. Studies have shown that massive amount of
bioproducts can be generated with utility as plant growth or
biofertilizers. The authors revealed that feathers can be
converted into liquid feather-derived protein hydrolysate via
hydrothermal treatment which when applied to plant can
boost yield and increase quantity. Gurav and Jadhav (2013)
suggested that the combination of liquid feather-derived
protein hydrolysate plus inorganic fertilizer on beans
increased yield and crop productivity. Li (2019) suggested
that the amino acid content of feather makes them a good
source of animal feeds and biofertilizers. Many microorganisms have the ability to metabolize chicken feather by
enzyme called keratinases.
Xu and Geelen (2018) showed that efficient agricultural
products must be eco-friendly and cost-effective, otherwise
there will be negative impact on the economy. Thus,
attention is beginning to shift away from fossil fuel products
with high burden of environmental and health issues to
waste recycling and bioresources. Many poultry-derived
waste biostimulants have been revealed to possess huge
agricultural benefits. However, studies have revealed that
caution must be taken when consuming some of the animal
by-products recycled due to potential risk for outbreaks of
diseases.
6 Bioconversion of Poultry Waste
into Bioherbicides and Biopesticides
Characterization of poultry feathers was examined for their
chemical makeup which is mainly protein, called keratins.
Keratins are the main fundamental peptides of amino acids
which showed great resistance to organic decomposition
(Ramnani et al. 2005). Before now, researchers have stated
that Bacillus licheniformis can make use of degraded keratin
in poultry waste by manufacturing keratin decomposing
enzyme in producing animal food and manure (Risٴel and
Brandelli 2002; Wang et al. 2005). These proteins are
majorly made up of two subunits which comprised numerous amino bonds (Takahashi et al. 2004). Research on
degradation by B. thuringiensis serovar israelensis and
Bacillus sphaericus of chicken feather that contain keratin
served as pesticide in the eradication of mosquito larva
(Takahashi et al. 2004; Ramnani and Gupta 2004).
Findings have revealed that there is a disposal of larger
number of feather waste by farmers that keep poultry as
waste product and also as ecological hazard. Various techniques have been developed to do off with the bulky feather
as waste products, that used in filling deep, manufacturing of
fossil fuel, pesticides and manure (Balint et al. 2005; Bertsch
and Coello 2005; Zerdani et al. 2004). They performed this
study in order to make use of the whole of the feather of the
chicken, as a substratum that is cost-efficient in the production of biopesticides. Their highlighted objective was
grounded on the biological means of degrading the fundamental proteins of feather from chicken using Bacillus
thuringiensis serovar israelensis and Bacillus subtilis bacterial strains. The classification of waste of the feather
reveals the compound arrangement which comprised peptides of amino acids (81%), fats (1.2%), ash content (1.3%),
and other dehydrated matter. Since this medium is stable and
there is no need for extra nutrient to culture the decomposing
bacteria, this breakdown technique helps to maximize the
usage of the feather by preventing any form of subsequent
residual loss, leading to an enhanced creation of biopesticides production (Poopathi et al. 2016).
Researchers discovered that the utilization of feather
waste as biopesticides was cost-effective. One-liter chicken
feather waste together with one-liter water was not
340
C. O. Adetunji et al.
generated each year from juice industry alone and a huge
amount from poultry waste. They further explained that
feathers have very strong keratin compound with resistible
proteins capable of generating biogas under different biological and enzymatic conditions. Bacillus megaterium strain
was shown to possess high keratinase activity capable of
degrading keratin in feather to generate methane through
anaerobic digestion.
Abu et al. (2012) revealed that in Palestine farmers have
lamented over the hardship posed by generation of waste
close to their farm site and reduction in supply of energy.
Studies have shown that energy in the form of biogas can be
generated from poultry manure. In their study, increase in
biogas generation was estimated to about 88%, hence economic benefits can be expected if proper investment is
channeled to it due to adequate supply of raw materials.
Khoufi et al. (2015) revealed that energy shortage and climate change seem to be the world’s agenda recently. This
has generated a lot of concerns from relevant stakeholders,
making them to think of alternative solutions. The generation of biogas from poultry waste is now accepted as a novel
source of renewable energy with little or no effect on the
environment, cheap and readily available. Every part of
chicken is now being utilized for various valued produce.
The authors described the anaerobic fermentation procedures
commonly utilized for the bioconversion of chicken waste
into different organic acids and biogas. In addition, the slurry
part again offers rich supplements for soil as biofertilizers
(Joardar and Rahman 2018).
Nurdiawati et al. (2019) revealed that the gross output of
poultry waste in Palestine is enormously huge contributing a
major concern, hence the need to deploy effective management protocols. Khoiyangbam et al. (2004) revealed that
feather, a poultry waste, is known to be a very good source
of amino acids and proteins such as protein hydrolysates,
and hence has become attractive to scientific communities in
recent times. Studies have shown that massive amount of
bioproducts can be generated with utility as plant growth or
biofertilizers. The authors revealed that feathers can be
converted into liquid feather-derived protein hydrolysate via
hydrothermal treatment which when applied to plant can
boost yield and increase quantity. Gurav and Jadhav (2013)
suggested that the combination of liquid feather-derived
protein hydrolysate plus inorganic fertilizer on beans
increased yield and crop productivity. Li (2019) suggested
that the amino acid content of feather makes them a good
source of animal feeds and biofertilizers. Many microorganisms have the ability to metabolize chicken feather by
enzyme called keratinases.
Xu and Geelen (2018) showed that efficient agricultural
products must be eco-friendly and cost-effective, otherwise
there will be negative impact on the economy. Thus,
attention is beginning to shift away from fossil fuel products
with high burden of environmental and health issues to
waste recycling and bioresources. Many poultry-derived
waste biostimulants have been revealed to possess huge
agricultural benefits. However, studies have revealed that
caution must be taken when consuming some of the animal
by-products recycled due to potential risk for outbreaks of
diseases.
6 Bioconversion of Poultry Waste
into Bioherbicides and Biopesticides
Characterization of poultry feathers was examined for their
chemical makeup which is mainly protein, called keratins.
Keratins are the main fundamental peptides of amino acids
which showed great resistance to organic decomposition
(Ramnani et al. 2005). Before now, researchers have stated
that Bacillus licheniformis can make use of degraded keratin
in poultry waste by manufacturing keratin decomposing
enzyme in producing animal food and manure (Risٴel and
Brandelli 2002; Wang et al. 2005). These proteins are
majorly made up of two subunits which comprised numerous amino bonds (Takahashi et al. 2004). Research on
degradation by B. thuringiensis serovar israelensis and
Bacillus sphaericus of chicken feather that contain keratin
served as pesticide in the eradication of mosquito larva
(Takahashi et al. 2004; Ramnani and Gupta 2004).
Findings have revealed that there is a disposal of larger
number of feather waste by farmers that keep poultry as
waste product and also as ecological hazard. Various techniques have been developed to do off with the bulky feather
as waste products, that used in filling deep, manufacturing of
fossil fuel, pesticides and manure (Balint et al. 2005; Bertsch
and Coello 2005; Zerdani et al. 2004). They performed this
study in order to make use of the whole of the feather of the
chicken, as a substratum that is cost-efficient in the production of biopesticides. Their highlighted objective was
grounded on the biological means of degrading the fundamental proteins of feather from chicken using Bacillus
thuringiensis serovar israelensis and Bacillus subtilis bacterial strains. The classification of waste of the feather
reveals the compound arrangement which comprised peptides of amino acids (81%), fats (1.2%), ash content (1.3%),
and other dehydrated matter. Since this medium is stable and
there is no need for extra nutrient to culture the decomposing
bacteria, this breakdown technique helps to maximize the
usage of the feather by preventing any form of subsequent
residual loss, leading to an enhanced creation of biopesticides production (Poopathi et al. 2016).
Researchers discovered that the utilization of feather
waste as biopesticides was cost-effective. One-liter chicken
feather waste together with one-liter water was not
340
C. O. Adetunji et al.