2 Main Substrates for Bioplastic Production
from Food Waste
The compilation of all waste data illustrates its aggravation
of environmental problems. Much of this negative environmental impact stems from the human need to feed may be a
better fit here depending on the intended meaning (Tsang
et al. 2019; Quested et al. 2013). Organic waste is responsible for the production of leachate, which contaminates the
soil and groundwater in landfills. Organic matter decomposition produces CO 2 and methane, gases that contribute to
the greenhouse effect (Tsang et al. 2019; Quested et al. 2013;
Reisinger et al. 2011; Rubia-García et al. 2012).
The food industry must create a waste generation plan to
decrease the quantity of waste produced, and to properly
route byproducts. Therefore, the environmental management
of food production is the most important challenge for the
future.
The reuse of byproducts is more economical. For example, less energy, water, time, labor, fertilizers, and pesticides
are wasted. In addition, one-third of the product that was
previously wasted becomes an added-value product (Martínez et al 2012). Therefore, waste management in the food
industry remains an unresolved problem and a top-priority
issue.
As an alternative to these residues, there is a growing
interest in their applications as matrixes in the development
and/or reinforcement of bioplastics. This is because synthetic
polymers are derived from petroleum, a nonrenewable natural resource that has a great environmental impact from its
extraction and refinement Ashter (2016), unlike materials
that are derived from renewable resources, i.e., from
resources that can be recovered (Morin-Crini et al. 2019).
Scientific interest in the development of degradable
biopolymeric films over the last decade is due to environmental concerns related to the irregular disposal of synthetic
plastics (Ashter 2016; Callister and Rethwisch 2012).
However, these materials can be diversely applied in health
care, as electronic sensors, structures, coatings, and for the
development of new products and technologies (Mano et al.
2007; Teixeira et al. 2018; Romani et al. 2017; Lemos et al.
2017).
The use of polysaccharide films (primarily using food
residues such as rice husk, soy, cassava, and shrimp) has
been suggested for use on food surfaces to protect them from
weather and to preserve their physical and chemical characteristics, and nutritional values (Piñeros-Hernandez et al.
2017).
According to Jafari et al. (2015) and Garavand et al.
(2017), bioplastic-forming polysaccharides are mainly
sourced from agricultural resources, for example, starch,
cellulose, and chitosan.
2.1 Structures, Compositions, and Properties
This next subsection highlights the design, constitutions, and
characteristics of the feedstocks that present great potential
utilization as bioplastic.
2.1.1 Shrimp Shells
Bioplastic packaging manufacturing, which is predominately
used in the food industry, can be combined with fishery
residues, such as shrimp shells that are rich in chitosan. The
addition of chitosan to films can help maintain film integrity
when it is applied to food products (Susilawati et al. 2019).
However, chitosan is obtained from the deacetylation of
chitin. According to Santos et al. (2020), chitin is principally
removed from the exoskeleton of arthropods and is considered to be the second more numerous natural polysaccharides, after cellulose, and the two presenting exceedingly
resembling chemical structures. Chitin can be obtained in the
form of water-insoluble solid, organic solvents, and diluted
acid mixtures, and it may be utilized as a flocculant or an
adsorbent in water treatment.
Chitin functions as a fibrous component and is nearly
always associated with proteins, forming oligoproteins that
interact with constituents, such as carbonates and phosphates
Susilawati et al. (2019). The structure of chitin can be
modified by removing the acetyl groups through a chemical
reaction at a high temperature in a concentrated alkaline
solution and. When the chitin deacetylation is greater than
60–65%, the resulting copolymer is chitosan (Casadidio
et al. 2019) (Fig. 2).
Chitosan has functional amine groups and primary and
secondary hydroxyl groups; therefore, chitosan has a high
chemical reactivity because it can form hydrogen bonds and
become an ideal mixer (Setiani et al. 2013).
Chitosan shows hydrophobic character (waterproof
material) and antimicrobial effects (Rochima et al. 2018), as
it can repress the development of microorganisms, e.g.,
Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhimurium, and Candida (Santos et al. 2020), which makes it
even more of a significant research field for the food
industry. Chitosan can complement the characteristic deficiencies of bioplastic packaging based on starch (Oktavia
et al. 2015).
2.1.2 Rice Husks, Soy Residues, and Cassava
Between-Husk
Starch, which is the most important type of bioplastic
polysaccharide, can be extracted from cassava, rice, and
soybeans (Susilawati et al. 2019; Bansal et al. 2018; Cruz
et al. 2020). This is mainly due to amylopectin levels that
can affect the stability of bioplastics and amylase, which
influence tensile strength and flexibility. The proportions of
Bioconversion of Food Waste into Bioplastics
283
from Food Waste
The compilation of all waste data illustrates its aggravation
of environmental problems. Much of this negative environmental impact stems from the human need to feed may be a
better fit here depending on the intended meaning (Tsang
et al. 2019; Quested et al. 2013). Organic waste is responsible for the production of leachate, which contaminates the
soil and groundwater in landfills. Organic matter decomposition produces CO 2 and methane, gases that contribute to
the greenhouse effect (Tsang et al. 2019; Quested et al. 2013;
Reisinger et al. 2011; Rubia-García et al. 2012).
The food industry must create a waste generation plan to
decrease the quantity of waste produced, and to properly
route byproducts. Therefore, the environmental management
of food production is the most important challenge for the
future.
The reuse of byproducts is more economical. For example, less energy, water, time, labor, fertilizers, and pesticides
are wasted. In addition, one-third of the product that was
previously wasted becomes an added-value product (Martínez et al 2012). Therefore, waste management in the food
industry remains an unresolved problem and a top-priority
issue.
As an alternative to these residues, there is a growing
interest in their applications as matrixes in the development
and/or reinforcement of bioplastics. This is because synthetic
polymers are derived from petroleum, a nonrenewable natural resource that has a great environmental impact from its
extraction and refinement Ashter (2016), unlike materials
that are derived from renewable resources, i.e., from
resources that can be recovered (Morin-Crini et al. 2019).
Scientific interest in the development of degradable
biopolymeric films over the last decade is due to environmental concerns related to the irregular disposal of synthetic
plastics (Ashter 2016; Callister and Rethwisch 2012).
However, these materials can be diversely applied in health
care, as electronic sensors, structures, coatings, and for the
development of new products and technologies (Mano et al.
2007; Teixeira et al. 2018; Romani et al. 2017; Lemos et al.
2017).
The use of polysaccharide films (primarily using food
residues such as rice husk, soy, cassava, and shrimp) has
been suggested for use on food surfaces to protect them from
weather and to preserve their physical and chemical characteristics, and nutritional values (Piñeros-Hernandez et al.
2017).
According to Jafari et al. (2015) and Garavand et al.
(2017), bioplastic-forming polysaccharides are mainly
sourced from agricultural resources, for example, starch,
cellulose, and chitosan.
2.1 Structures, Compositions, and Properties
This next subsection highlights the design, constitutions, and
characteristics of the feedstocks that present great potential
utilization as bioplastic.
2.1.1 Shrimp Shells
Bioplastic packaging manufacturing, which is predominately
used in the food industry, can be combined with fishery
residues, such as shrimp shells that are rich in chitosan. The
addition of chitosan to films can help maintain film integrity
when it is applied to food products (Susilawati et al. 2019).
However, chitosan is obtained from the deacetylation of
chitin. According to Santos et al. (2020), chitin is principally
removed from the exoskeleton of arthropods and is considered to be the second more numerous natural polysaccharides, after cellulose, and the two presenting exceedingly
resembling chemical structures. Chitin can be obtained in the
form of water-insoluble solid, organic solvents, and diluted
acid mixtures, and it may be utilized as a flocculant or an
adsorbent in water treatment.
Chitin functions as a fibrous component and is nearly
always associated with proteins, forming oligoproteins that
interact with constituents, such as carbonates and phosphates
Susilawati et al. (2019). The structure of chitin can be
modified by removing the acetyl groups through a chemical
reaction at a high temperature in a concentrated alkaline
solution and. When the chitin deacetylation is greater than
60–65%, the resulting copolymer is chitosan (Casadidio
et al. 2019) (Fig. 2).
Chitosan has functional amine groups and primary and
secondary hydroxyl groups; therefore, chitosan has a high
chemical reactivity because it can form hydrogen bonds and
become an ideal mixer (Setiani et al. 2013).
Chitosan shows hydrophobic character (waterproof
material) and antimicrobial effects (Rochima et al. 2018), as
it can repress the development of microorganisms, e.g.,
Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhimurium, and Candida (Santos et al. 2020), which makes it
even more of a significant research field for the food
industry. Chitosan can complement the characteristic deficiencies of bioplastic packaging based on starch (Oktavia
et al. 2015).
2.1.2 Rice Husks, Soy Residues, and Cassava
Between-Husk
Starch, which is the most important type of bioplastic
polysaccharide, can be extracted from cassava, rice, and
soybeans (Susilawati et al. 2019; Bansal et al. 2018; Cruz
et al. 2020). This is mainly due to amylopectin levels that
can affect the stability of bioplastics and amylase, which
influence tensile strength and flexibility. The proportions of
Bioconversion of Food Waste into Bioplastics
283