polysaccharides could be proper candidates to be used for
the preparation of scaffolds instead of conventional materials, since they have the benefit of entering the body without
creating any cytotoxicity or immunogenicity (Kazimierczak
et al. 2019). Another important factor in the
polysaccharide-derived implants is their biodegradability,
which let the scaffold to degrade during formation of the
tissue (Mallakpour and Abbasi 2020).
Govindaraj et al. (2018) used extracted pectin from
Jackfruit peel with different weight percentages to prepare
pectin/apatite bionanocomposites. The prepared bionanocomposites were evaluated to be used as bone graft
materials. The results confirmed both superior mechanical
strength and biocompatibility for the bionanocomposite
containing 0.1 wt% of the pectin. They acclaimed that –OH
and –COOH functional groups of the pectin promote Ca
2+
binding, and consequently crystal nucleation and growth in
the osteogenesis.
Mallakpour and Abbasi (2020) designed a bionanocomposite based on chitosan and tragacanth gum embedded with
a hybrid of SiO 2 and Ag nanoparticles with the potential to
support formation of the hydroxyapatite during immersion in
the simulated body fluid. As demonstrated in FESEM images of the bionanocomposites, after 28 days immersion in
the
simulated
body
fluid
(Fig. 12),
tetragonal
pyramidal-shaped hydroxyapatite can be observed for the
bionanocomposite with the SiO 2 /Ag ratio of 1/1. The
antibacterial activity of the bionanocomposites was studied
and satisfactory results were observed against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. They pointed out to
the antibacterial feature of both polysaccharides which were
used as the polymer matrix.
Incorporation of magnesium fluorohydroxyapatite in the
sodium alginate matrix led to bioactive materials with
potential to be applied in the tissue engineering (Mallakpour
et al. 2020). In this study, the as-mentioned ceramic
nanoparticles were used in different weight ratios for the
preparation of alginate-based nanocomposites and their
bioactivity potency was followed through immersion of the
prepared nanocomposites in the simulated body fluid for
28 days. The pictures attained from FESEM confirmed formation of a thick layer of hydroxyapatite on the samplesʼ
surface. They suggested to the ability of the sodium alginate
to form gel in the presence of Ca
2+ , which makes it proper
for biomedical applications.
Microporous bionanocomposites based on chitosan and
agarose were prepared by incorporation of 40 and 70 wt% of
nanohydroxyapatite (Kazimierczak et al. 2019). It was
observed the amount of incorporated nanohydroxyapatite
greatly overshadowed the status of the functional groups.
While, in lower amounts of the nanohydroxyapatite, all of
the nitrogen atoms were in the form of protonated
amide/amine functionality, but for higher amounts nitrogen
in the form of = N– bonds were observed. These phenomena
affected the surface polarity. As was established by X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy and wettability test, functional
groups of the bionanocomposite containing 40 wt% of
nanohydroxyapatite were more polar and its surface was
more hydrophilic, which all resulted to the lower protein
adsorption ability than the other bionanocomposite. However, the bionanocomposite containing a lower amount of
nanohydroxyapatite showed better osteoinductive properties,
both bionanocomposites had the potential to be used in bone
tissue engineering.
Carboxymethyl cellulose and gelatin were linked together
through hydrogen bonding and hydroxyapatite was synthesized in situ to strengthen this blend (Sarkar et al. 2018).
Different proportions of the carboxymethyl cellulose to
gelatin were used and the nanocomposite with equal
amounts of both polymers showed the highest compressive
strength and elastic modulus. The prepared nanocomposites
showed the ability to support proliferation and differentiation
of MG-63 cells, which are known as the osteoblast-like cells.
Also, biodegradability and ability of the nanocomposites to
form bone apatite in the simulated body fluid were studied
and it was observed that by enhancing the immersion time of
the nanocomposites in the simulated body fluid, more apatite
will deposit on its surface.
Mallakpour and Rashidimoghadam (2020) tried several
routes to modify chitosan and make it proper for bone tissue
engineering. At first, PVA was used to enhance chitosan
flexibility. After blending with PVA, different percentages of
multi-walled carbon nanotubes were inserted within the
blended polymeric matrix and bioactivity of the prepared
nanocomposites was evaluated via immersion within simulated body fluid for 30 days. Finally, nanocomposite 3 wt%
showed the most capability for the hydroxyapatite formation
while in the case of the blended polymeric matrix without
multi-walled carbon nanotubes no clear hydroxyapatite
crystal was observable.
5.3.3 Antibacterial Materials
Taking a look at recent developments in the antibacterial
agents shows that polysaccharides have indubitable role in
this area. One of the most popular antibacterial agents is
nanosized Ag and polysaccharides could be green replacements for unsafe reducing agents in their preparation route
(Ma et al. 2016). In spite of vast applications of these
nanoparticles, aggregation diminishes their antibacterial
activity. Polysaccharides are known as one of the most
favorable capping agents and stabilizers for these nanoparticles (Goel et al. 2019). In some cases, polysaccharides have
the potential to act alone as the antibacterial moieties but
their application in the form of polysaccharide/metal or
metal oxide bionanocomposites led to attaining desirable
properties (Prokhorov et al. 2019).
204
S. Mallakpour and M. Naghdi
the preparation of scaffolds instead of conventional materials, since they have the benefit of entering the body without
creating any cytotoxicity or immunogenicity (Kazimierczak
et al. 2019). Another important factor in the
polysaccharide-derived implants is their biodegradability,
which let the scaffold to degrade during formation of the
tissue (Mallakpour and Abbasi 2020).
Govindaraj et al. (2018) used extracted pectin from
Jackfruit peel with different weight percentages to prepare
pectin/apatite bionanocomposites. The prepared bionanocomposites were evaluated to be used as bone graft
materials. The results confirmed both superior mechanical
strength and biocompatibility for the bionanocomposite
containing 0.1 wt% of the pectin. They acclaimed that –OH
and –COOH functional groups of the pectin promote Ca
2+
binding, and consequently crystal nucleation and growth in
the osteogenesis.
Mallakpour and Abbasi (2020) designed a bionanocomposite based on chitosan and tragacanth gum embedded with
a hybrid of SiO 2 and Ag nanoparticles with the potential to
support formation of the hydroxyapatite during immersion in
the simulated body fluid. As demonstrated in FESEM images of the bionanocomposites, after 28 days immersion in
the
simulated
body
fluid
(Fig. 12),
tetragonal
pyramidal-shaped hydroxyapatite can be observed for the
bionanocomposite with the SiO 2 /Ag ratio of 1/1. The
antibacterial activity of the bionanocomposites was studied
and satisfactory results were observed against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. They pointed out to
the antibacterial feature of both polysaccharides which were
used as the polymer matrix.
Incorporation of magnesium fluorohydroxyapatite in the
sodium alginate matrix led to bioactive materials with
potential to be applied in the tissue engineering (Mallakpour
et al. 2020). In this study, the as-mentioned ceramic
nanoparticles were used in different weight ratios for the
preparation of alginate-based nanocomposites and their
bioactivity potency was followed through immersion of the
prepared nanocomposites in the simulated body fluid for
28 days. The pictures attained from FESEM confirmed formation of a thick layer of hydroxyapatite on the samplesʼ
surface. They suggested to the ability of the sodium alginate
to form gel in the presence of Ca
2+ , which makes it proper
for biomedical applications.
Microporous bionanocomposites based on chitosan and
agarose were prepared by incorporation of 40 and 70 wt% of
nanohydroxyapatite (Kazimierczak et al. 2019). It was
observed the amount of incorporated nanohydroxyapatite
greatly overshadowed the status of the functional groups.
While, in lower amounts of the nanohydroxyapatite, all of
the nitrogen atoms were in the form of protonated
amide/amine functionality, but for higher amounts nitrogen
in the form of = N– bonds were observed. These phenomena
affected the surface polarity. As was established by X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy and wettability test, functional
groups of the bionanocomposite containing 40 wt% of
nanohydroxyapatite were more polar and its surface was
more hydrophilic, which all resulted to the lower protein
adsorption ability than the other bionanocomposite. However, the bionanocomposite containing a lower amount of
nanohydroxyapatite showed better osteoinductive properties,
both bionanocomposites had the potential to be used in bone
tissue engineering.
Carboxymethyl cellulose and gelatin were linked together
through hydrogen bonding and hydroxyapatite was synthesized in situ to strengthen this blend (Sarkar et al. 2018).
Different proportions of the carboxymethyl cellulose to
gelatin were used and the nanocomposite with equal
amounts of both polymers showed the highest compressive
strength and elastic modulus. The prepared nanocomposites
showed the ability to support proliferation and differentiation
of MG-63 cells, which are known as the osteoblast-like cells.
Also, biodegradability and ability of the nanocomposites to
form bone apatite in the simulated body fluid were studied
and it was observed that by enhancing the immersion time of
the nanocomposites in the simulated body fluid, more apatite
will deposit on its surface.
Mallakpour and Rashidimoghadam (2020) tried several
routes to modify chitosan and make it proper for bone tissue
engineering. At first, PVA was used to enhance chitosan
flexibility. After blending with PVA, different percentages of
multi-walled carbon nanotubes were inserted within the
blended polymeric matrix and bioactivity of the prepared
nanocomposites was evaluated via immersion within simulated body fluid for 30 days. Finally, nanocomposite 3 wt%
showed the most capability for the hydroxyapatite formation
while in the case of the blended polymeric matrix without
multi-walled carbon nanotubes no clear hydroxyapatite
crystal was observable.
5.3.3 Antibacterial Materials
Taking a look at recent developments in the antibacterial
agents shows that polysaccharides have indubitable role in
this area. One of the most popular antibacterial agents is
nanosized Ag and polysaccharides could be green replacements for unsafe reducing agents in their preparation route
(Ma et al. 2016). In spite of vast applications of these
nanoparticles, aggregation diminishes their antibacterial
activity. Polysaccharides are known as one of the most
favorable capping agents and stabilizers for these nanoparticles (Goel et al. 2019). In some cases, polysaccharides have
the potential to act alone as the antibacterial moieties but
their application in the form of polysaccharide/metal or
metal oxide bionanocomposites led to attaining desirable
properties (Prokhorov et al. 2019).
204
S. Mallakpour and M. Naghdi