the addition of DC slurry to EFB and POME contained
46.4% N, 17.9% P, 17.7% K and 23.1% Ca more than that
without DC slurry (Yahya et al. 2010).
In another study done by Zahrim (2015) on the addition
of banana peels into composting pile of EFB and POME
showed that maturation was reached within 45 days with the
maximum temperature of 47.5 °C. Banana peels addition
improved the final C/N ratio to be in the range of 27–29 and
potassium content from 2.7 to 3.0%. Addition of more than
5% of banana skin did not increase the K-content any higher
and this might be due to the solubilisation of K in the leachate. In Malaysia, banana peels are generally considered as
waste. At 30–40% of banana weight, the peels account for
several tonnes of waste generated daily from
small-to-medium scaled food production factories, households, restaurants and marketplaces (Zahrim 2015).
Co-composting of palm oil by-products such as the two
major waste products EFB and POME is a cleaner and safer
process. It can result in up to 76% reduction in greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions by avoiding the uncontained release of
methane from the open storage of EFB and POME treatment
ponds (Krishnan et al. 2017). From the literature summary,
underutilized biomass such as abundant palm oil mill
by-products are proven as suitable additives for
co-composting processes for a faster maturation and better
final quality of compost with balanced C/N ratio and suitable
pH while simultaneously possessing a healthy dose of
soil-friendly bacteria. This technique serves as a treatment
strategy as well as producing useful products to support circular economy activities in the palm oil and other industries.
5 Conclusion
The palm oil industry plays a major role in the global supply
of oils and fats. It has the highest oil yield per hectare and
yields about 10 times more oil per hectare than soy oil. The
demand for palm oil is expected to increase steadily, however, environmental concerns such as deforestation has slowed its growth. Furthermore, this industry is suffering from
an overabundance of mill residues which require treatment
prior to disposal and the increasing oil demand will contribute to increased generation of waste from the mills and
plantations.
Current waste treatment processes employed globally, as
well as in Malaysia specifically, are inefficient and unable to
accommodate the large production of various palm oil
by-products. Anaerobic digestion is gaining popularity due
to its potential to generate biogas as a clean energy alternative for the mill operation and a slurry digestate for
nourishment to the plantation. Composting is another widely
applied treatment method to turn palm oil by-products into a
soil-friendly fertilizer or compost. These two processes can
be further enhanced by the addition of additive materials
from the industry itself. Various studies revealed the
potential of co-digestion to improve the process and the
products of anaerobic digestion and composting.
Integration of palm waste materials will promote sustainability for the mill operation and oil palm plantation.
This approach combined with palm oil certification programmes can help reduce environmental impacts and may
help to improve market demand which will impact the palm
oil industry directly. With various sustainable development
goals outlined by the UN, this industry should strive to be
more sustainable in an integrated approach rather than
focusing on maximizing oil production or treating specific
wastes alone.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the grant
(FRGS 015MA0-093) and HICoE support to CBBR from the Ministry
of Higher Education Malaysia.
References
Abdullah, N., & Sulaiman, F. (2013). The oil palm wastes in Malaysia.
Biomass Now-Sustainable Growth and Use, 1(3), 75–93.
Ahmad, T., et al. (2011a). Oil palm biomass—Based adsorbents for the
removal of water pollutants—A review. Journal of Environmental
Science and Health, Part C, 29(3), 177–222.
Ahmad, M. N., et al. (2011b). Changes in physicochemical and
microbial community during co-composting of oil palm frond with
palm oil mill effluent anaerobic sludge. BioResources, 6(4), 4762–
4780.
Ahmed, Y., et al. (2015). Production of biogas and performance
evaluation of existing treatment processes in palm oil mill effluent
(POME). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 1260–
1278.
Al-Madhoun, W. A., et al. (2005). Co-composting of palm oil
wastewater sludge and biosolids.
Arimi, M. M., et al. (2015). Strategies for improvement of biohydrogen
production from organic-rich wastewater: A review. Biomass and
Bioenergy, 75, 101–118.
Aviani, I., et al. (2010). Co-composting of solid and liquid olive mill
wastes: management aspects and the horticultural value of the
resulting composts. Bioresource Technology, 101(17), 6699–6706.
Awalludin, M. F., et al. (2015). An overview of the oil palm industry in
Malaysia and its waste utilization through thermochemical conversion, specifically via liquefaction. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 50, 1469–1484.
Baharuddin, A., et al. (2009). Co-composting of empty fruit bunches
and partially treated palm oil mill effluents in pilot scale.
International Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(2), 69–78.
Baharuddin, A. S., et al. (2010). Effects of palm oil mill effluent
(POME) anaerobic sludge from 500 m 3 of closed anaerobic
methane digested tank on pressed-shredded empty fruit bunch
(EFB) composting process. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9
(16), 2427–2436.
Basiron, Y., Jalani B, & Chan, K. W. (2000). Advances in oil palm
research. Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia
140
R. Shamsuddin et al.
46.4% N, 17.9% P, 17.7% K and 23.1% Ca more than that
without DC slurry (Yahya et al. 2010).
In another study done by Zahrim (2015) on the addition
of banana peels into composting pile of EFB and POME
showed that maturation was reached within 45 days with the
maximum temperature of 47.5 °C. Banana peels addition
improved the final C/N ratio to be in the range of 27–29 and
potassium content from 2.7 to 3.0%. Addition of more than
5% of banana skin did not increase the K-content any higher
and this might be due to the solubilisation of K in the leachate. In Malaysia, banana peels are generally considered as
waste. At 30–40% of banana weight, the peels account for
several tonnes of waste generated daily from
small-to-medium scaled food production factories, households, restaurants and marketplaces (Zahrim 2015).
Co-composting of palm oil by-products such as the two
major waste products EFB and POME is a cleaner and safer
process. It can result in up to 76% reduction in greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions by avoiding the uncontained release of
methane from the open storage of EFB and POME treatment
ponds (Krishnan et al. 2017). From the literature summary,
underutilized biomass such as abundant palm oil mill
by-products are proven as suitable additives for
co-composting processes for a faster maturation and better
final quality of compost with balanced C/N ratio and suitable
pH while simultaneously possessing a healthy dose of
soil-friendly bacteria. This technique serves as a treatment
strategy as well as producing useful products to support circular economy activities in the palm oil and other industries.
5 Conclusion
The palm oil industry plays a major role in the global supply
of oils and fats. It has the highest oil yield per hectare and
yields about 10 times more oil per hectare than soy oil. The
demand for palm oil is expected to increase steadily, however, environmental concerns such as deforestation has slowed its growth. Furthermore, this industry is suffering from
an overabundance of mill residues which require treatment
prior to disposal and the increasing oil demand will contribute to increased generation of waste from the mills and
plantations.
Current waste treatment processes employed globally, as
well as in Malaysia specifically, are inefficient and unable to
accommodate the large production of various palm oil
by-products. Anaerobic digestion is gaining popularity due
to its potential to generate biogas as a clean energy alternative for the mill operation and a slurry digestate for
nourishment to the plantation. Composting is another widely
applied treatment method to turn palm oil by-products into a
soil-friendly fertilizer or compost. These two processes can
be further enhanced by the addition of additive materials
from the industry itself. Various studies revealed the
potential of co-digestion to improve the process and the
products of anaerobic digestion and composting.
Integration of palm waste materials will promote sustainability for the mill operation and oil palm plantation.
This approach combined with palm oil certification programmes can help reduce environmental impacts and may
help to improve market demand which will impact the palm
oil industry directly. With various sustainable development
goals outlined by the UN, this industry should strive to be
more sustainable in an integrated approach rather than
focusing on maximizing oil production or treating specific
wastes alone.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the grant
(FRGS 015MA0-093) and HICoE support to CBBR from the Ministry
of Higher Education Malaysia.
References
Abdullah, N., & Sulaiman, F. (2013). The oil palm wastes in Malaysia.
Biomass Now-Sustainable Growth and Use, 1(3), 75–93.
Ahmad, T., et al. (2011a). Oil palm biomass—Based adsorbents for the
removal of water pollutants—A review. Journal of Environmental
Science and Health, Part C, 29(3), 177–222.
Ahmad, M. N., et al. (2011b). Changes in physicochemical and
microbial community during co-composting of oil palm frond with
palm oil mill effluent anaerobic sludge. BioResources, 6(4), 4762–
4780.
Ahmed, Y., et al. (2015). Production of biogas and performance
evaluation of existing treatment processes in palm oil mill effluent
(POME). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 1260–
1278.
Al-Madhoun, W. A., et al. (2005). Co-composting of palm oil
wastewater sludge and biosolids.
Arimi, M. M., et al. (2015). Strategies for improvement of biohydrogen
production from organic-rich wastewater: A review. Biomass and
Bioenergy, 75, 101–118.
Aviani, I., et al. (2010). Co-composting of solid and liquid olive mill
wastes: management aspects and the horticultural value of the
resulting composts. Bioresource Technology, 101(17), 6699–6706.
Awalludin, M. F., et al. (2015). An overview of the oil palm industry in
Malaysia and its waste utilization through thermochemical conversion, specifically via liquefaction. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 50, 1469–1484.
Baharuddin, A., et al. (2009). Co-composting of empty fruit bunches
and partially treated palm oil mill effluents in pilot scale.
International Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(2), 69–78.
Baharuddin, A. S., et al. (2010). Effects of palm oil mill effluent
(POME) anaerobic sludge from 500 m 3 of closed anaerobic
methane digested tank on pressed-shredded empty fruit bunch
(EFB) composting process. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9
(16), 2427–2436.
Basiron, Y., Jalani B, & Chan, K. W. (2000). Advances in oil palm
research. Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia
140
R. Shamsuddin et al.