80
setting up of mining projects, still leads to degradation of forest cover. At times EIA
the fact that mining hampers the movement of animals, especially in sensitive areas
(Rangarajan et al. 2010). Also, many gaps still exist in the available data area wise
regarding the extent of degraded forest which hampers effective measures from
being undertaken for mitigation. Lack of landuse planning also boosts the imbalance caused (Rangarajan et al. 2010). Electrocution is another reason that leads to a
steep increase in the number of elephant deaths in India, as electric wires often hang
down especially in forested areas (Rangarajan et al. 2010).
4.4 Database and Methodology
Satellite images (Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI) for preparation of land use land
cover map of the study area were downloaded from USGS earth explorer. Software
used includes Arc Map 10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE for processing of the data and
preparation of maps: Google Earth for digitization and MS-Excel for calculations
and preparing graphs. The accuracy of the land use land cover map was determined
through confusion matrix and Kappa coefficient (Dou et al., 2020) was determined
as 81.0 and 83.0%, respectively. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
was derived to differentiate the forested and non-forested areas. Finally, Land
Fragmentation model (Land Use Education and Research (CLEAR, 2002)) was
used for preparation of forest fragmentation maps (Sahana et al., 2015; 2016; 2018).
The methodology used for the land use and land cover change analysis and extent
of fragmentation is illustrated in Fig. 4.3.
4.5 Land Use and Land Cover Changes and Extent
of Fragmentation in the Landscape
Land use and land cover classification for the entire landscape was carried out using
geo-spatial techniques in order to identify the area covered by each land use and
land cover class. The land use land cover map was prepared for the year of 1990,
2008 and 2018. From the, increase or decrease in the area covered by each class was
calculated to understand the trend. The LULC change analysis showed that there
was a decrease in the area covered by vegetation from 5309.9 km sq. in 1990 to
4744.85 km sq. in 2018 and also an increase in area covered by agriculture from
4996.84 km sq. in 1990 to 6671.21 km sq. in 2018. There was a drastic increase in
the area covered by built-up from 59.14 km sq. in 1990 to 271.13 km sq. in 2018.
Also, there was an increase in the area covered by water bodies from 119.55 km sq.
in 1990 to 159.9 km sq. in 2018 and decrease in the area covered by riverbed from
157.86 km sq. in 1990 to 108.35 km sq. in 2018; and the area covered by open/barren land decreased from 5931.34 km sq. in 1990 to 4578.69 km sq. in 2018. The
C. S. Abhijitha et al.
setting up of mining projects, still leads to degradation of forest cover. At times EIA
the fact that mining hampers the movement of animals, especially in sensitive areas
(Rangarajan et al. 2010). Also, many gaps still exist in the available data area wise
regarding the extent of degraded forest which hampers effective measures from
being undertaken for mitigation. Lack of landuse planning also boosts the imbalance caused (Rangarajan et al. 2010). Electrocution is another reason that leads to a
steep increase in the number of elephant deaths in India, as electric wires often hang
down especially in forested areas (Rangarajan et al. 2010).
4.4 Database and Methodology
Satellite images (Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI) for preparation of land use land
cover map of the study area were downloaded from USGS earth explorer. Software
used includes Arc Map 10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE for processing of the data and
preparation of maps: Google Earth for digitization and MS-Excel for calculations
and preparing graphs. The accuracy of the land use land cover map was determined
through confusion matrix and Kappa coefficient (Dou et al., 2020) was determined
as 81.0 and 83.0%, respectively. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
was derived to differentiate the forested and non-forested areas. Finally, Land
Fragmentation model (Land Use Education and Research (CLEAR, 2002)) was
used for preparation of forest fragmentation maps (Sahana et al., 2015; 2016; 2018).
The methodology used for the land use and land cover change analysis and extent
of fragmentation is illustrated in Fig. 4.3.
4.5 Land Use and Land Cover Changes and Extent
of Fragmentation in the Landscape
Land use and land cover classification for the entire landscape was carried out using
geo-spatial techniques in order to identify the area covered by each land use and
land cover class. The land use land cover map was prepared for the year of 1990,
2008 and 2018. From the, increase or decrease in the area covered by each class was
calculated to understand the trend. The LULC change analysis showed that there
was a decrease in the area covered by vegetation from 5309.9 km sq. in 1990 to
4744.85 km sq. in 2018 and also an increase in area covered by agriculture from
4996.84 km sq. in 1990 to 6671.21 km sq. in 2018. There was a drastic increase in
the area covered by built-up from 59.14 km sq. in 1990 to 271.13 km sq. in 2018.
Also, there was an increase in the area covered by water bodies from 119.55 km sq.
in 1990 to 159.9 km sq. in 2018 and decrease in the area covered by riverbed from
157.86 km sq. in 1990 to 108.35 km sq. in 2018; and the area covered by open/barren land decreased from 5931.34 km sq. in 1990 to 4578.69 km sq. in 2018. The
C. S. Abhijitha et al.