429
β-carotene (Warnke et al. 2011). Consistently, 20 μM of β-carotene in 3 T3-L1 adipocyte cell lines differentiation, stimulated gene expression associated with insulin
sensitivity. This genes includes GLUT-4, C/EBPα, C/EBPβ, adiponectin, PPARγ1,
PPARγ2, and ALBP. Also, TNF-α is inhibited by accumulated β-carotene and leads
to the elevation in the expression of genes linked to sensitivity of insulin (Kameji
et al. 2010). Hence, treatments with carotenoids may reduce the expression of
PPARγ as well as other lipogenic and adipogenic genes in the initial stage of differentiation of adipose tissues. Additionally, diets rich in 9-cis β-carotene prevents
the process of atherogenesis and fatty liver production in LDL receptor-knockout
mice (Harari et al. 2008).
A physiological defense mechanism against obesity, diabetes and hyperlipidemia
through uncoupling protein (UCP) families including UCP1, UCP2 and UCP3 has
become a target of interest (Jezek 2002). The mitochondrial UCP1 is normally
expressed mainly in the brown adipose tissue and is the major agent for antiobesity.
Hence, its impairment leads to the development of obesity (Lowel et al. 1993;
Miyashita 2006; Maeda et al. 2007a). A report shows that fucoxanthin, a carotenoid,
remarkably lowers white adipose tissue (WAT) in mice and rats with a marked
expression of UCP1 mRNA and protein in WAT. However, there was a minute
expression of WAT UCP1 in mice fed on control diet. Additionally, the mixture of
fish oil and fucoxanthin displayed a higher action for ameliorating the WAT weight
gain when compared to feeding with fucoxanthin only (Maeda et al. 2007a; Maeda
et al. 2007b). Furthermore, the intake of fucoxanthin daily leads to a remarkable
decrease in body weight (Maeda et al. 2005). Also, astaxanthin prevents the elevation
of adipose tissue and body weight due to high fat diets (Ikeuchi et al. 2007). Moreover,
weight of liver, total cholesterol, TAG in liver, TAG in plasma are all reduced by
astaxanthin and it may be concluded that it attenuates obesity (Jaswir et al. 2011).
20.5.8 Antioxidant/Pro-oxidant Activity
Carotenoids may promote oxidative stress inhibition and serve as antioxidants in all
organism (Tian et al. 2007; Yeum et al. 2009). In human beings, carotenoids are
components of the defense cascade (Stahl and Sies 2003). They inhibit single oxygen in the way to tocopherols and they scavenge free reactive oxygen species that
are produced during photo-oxidative stress (Stahl et al. 2000). In addition,
El-Agamey and Mcgarvey (2008)) reported that they quench free radicals through
three major mechanism including electron transfer reaction (Eq. 20.1), addition and
hydrogen atom transfer reaction (Eq. 20.2) and addition reaction (Eq. 20.3). Also,
carotenoids have the ability to combine directly with free radicals like superoxide
anion. A resonance-stabilised carbon-centred radical complex is formed then carotenoids reacts with free radicals. An example is there reaction with lipid peroxyl
radicals (Smirnoff 2005). CAR: carotenoids; peroxyl radicals: ROO∗
20 Carotenoids as Functional Bioactive Compounds
β-carotene (Warnke et al. 2011). Consistently, 20 μM of β-carotene in 3 T3-L1 adipocyte cell lines differentiation, stimulated gene expression associated with insulin
sensitivity. This genes includes GLUT-4, C/EBPα, C/EBPβ, adiponectin, PPARγ1,
PPARγ2, and ALBP. Also, TNF-α is inhibited by accumulated β-carotene and leads
to the elevation in the expression of genes linked to sensitivity of insulin (Kameji
et al. 2010). Hence, treatments with carotenoids may reduce the expression of
PPARγ as well as other lipogenic and adipogenic genes in the initial stage of differentiation of adipose tissues. Additionally, diets rich in 9-cis β-carotene prevents
the process of atherogenesis and fatty liver production in LDL receptor-knockout
mice (Harari et al. 2008).
A physiological defense mechanism against obesity, diabetes and hyperlipidemia
through uncoupling protein (UCP) families including UCP1, UCP2 and UCP3 has
become a target of interest (Jezek 2002). The mitochondrial UCP1 is normally
expressed mainly in the brown adipose tissue and is the major agent for antiobesity.
Hence, its impairment leads to the development of obesity (Lowel et al. 1993;
Miyashita 2006; Maeda et al. 2007a). A report shows that fucoxanthin, a carotenoid,
remarkably lowers white adipose tissue (WAT) in mice and rats with a marked
expression of UCP1 mRNA and protein in WAT. However, there was a minute
expression of WAT UCP1 in mice fed on control diet. Additionally, the mixture of
fish oil and fucoxanthin displayed a higher action for ameliorating the WAT weight
gain when compared to feeding with fucoxanthin only (Maeda et al. 2007a; Maeda
et al. 2007b). Furthermore, the intake of fucoxanthin daily leads to a remarkable
decrease in body weight (Maeda et al. 2005). Also, astaxanthin prevents the elevation
of adipose tissue and body weight due to high fat diets (Ikeuchi et al. 2007). Moreover,
weight of liver, total cholesterol, TAG in liver, TAG in plasma are all reduced by
astaxanthin and it may be concluded that it attenuates obesity (Jaswir et al. 2011).
20.5.8 Antioxidant/Pro-oxidant Activity
Carotenoids may promote oxidative stress inhibition and serve as antioxidants in all
organism (Tian et al. 2007; Yeum et al. 2009). In human beings, carotenoids are
components of the defense cascade (Stahl and Sies 2003). They inhibit single oxygen in the way to tocopherols and they scavenge free reactive oxygen species that
are produced during photo-oxidative stress (Stahl et al. 2000). In addition,
El-Agamey and Mcgarvey (2008)) reported that they quench free radicals through
three major mechanism including electron transfer reaction (Eq. 20.1), addition and
hydrogen atom transfer reaction (Eq. 20.2) and addition reaction (Eq. 20.3). Also,
carotenoids have the ability to combine directly with free radicals like superoxide
anion. A resonance-stabilised carbon-centred radical complex is formed then carotenoids reacts with free radicals. An example is there reaction with lipid peroxyl
radicals (Smirnoff 2005). CAR: carotenoids; peroxyl radicals: ROO∗
20 Carotenoids as Functional Bioactive Compounds