428
activity in RAW 264.7 cell lines as well as reducing TNF-α, NO, IL-1β and PGE 2 .
In a similar study, the expression of COX 2 and iNOS as well as the synthesis of NO
in BV2 microglial cells stimulated by LPS are inhibited by astaxanthin (Choi et al.
2009). This xanthophyll carotenoid improved the microbicidal and phagocytic
activity of neutrophils at 5 mM (Macedo et al. 2010). Furthermore, it suppresses
oxidative injury to proteins and lipids in human neutrophils (Macedo et al. 2010). A
reduction in the levels of NF-κB expression and improvement of expression of
SHP-1 level was observed in cells pre-treated with astaxanthin (Speranza et al.
2012). A human study was carried out on cohort of young women that are healthy
(Park et al. 2010). In this work, 2 mg of astaxanthin ingested by women for 8 weeks
resulted into a reduced level of C-reactive protein in blood, thus, expressing it antiinflammatory action. Furthermore, suppresses the synthesis of inflammatory markers as well as synthesis of ROS by down-regulating transcription factors of AP-1
and NF-κB. The data from this study indicated that ingestion of astaxanthin
improves immune stimuli in young women that are healthy, reduces the levels of
acute phase protein and damage of DNA (Park et al. 2010).
20.5.7 Anti-obesity Activity
Accumulation of high quantity of adipocytes leads to obesity and it has become a
global health problem. This is due to its ability to increase the risk of life threatening
disorders like obstructive sleep apnea, type-2 diabetes, and coronary heart diseases,
among others. Adipocyte size and number are used as index for determination of
adipose tissue mass (Zhao et al. 2016). Elevated storage of triacylglycerol (TAG)
and high quantity of adipose tissues as a result of differentiation and proliferation
leads to expansion of adipose tissue size. The differentiation of adipoctytes is a
multiplex process which involve variety of transcription factors including early upregulation of C/EBPβ expression. Then, the adipogenic factors like C/EBPα are
acted upon by C/EBPβ to modulate the late stage of adipose tissue formation and it
its deficiency, differenttiaon of adipocyte cannot not occur (Rosen and MacDougald
2006; Frey and Vogel 2011). The function of β-carotene in the adipose tissue has
gain more attention. It exert its effect by inhibiting adipose tissues formation and
differentiation (Zhao et al. 2016). Retinal, β-carotene and β-apo-8′-carotenal
remarkably reduced the differentiation of 3T3L1 preadipose tissue cell line to adipose tissues via upregulation of RAR and PPARγ2 suppression (Kawada et al.
2000). In another study, rosiglitazone in combination with (all-E)-lycopene,
β-carotene and other dietary constituents was used to conduct differentiation in
murine C3H10T1/2 adipocyte. It was observed that β-carotene inhibited lipid formation that was stimulated by rosiglitazone and also suppresses the expression of
differentiation markers in adipocytes like the C/EBPα, PPARα and PPARγ as well
as other genes linked to metabolism lipid (CPT1B, AP2 and LPL). Thus, the modulation of genes involved in differentiation of adipocytes were stimulated by
A. Olatunde et al.
activity in RAW 264.7 cell lines as well as reducing TNF-α, NO, IL-1β and PGE 2 .
In a similar study, the expression of COX 2 and iNOS as well as the synthesis of NO
in BV2 microglial cells stimulated by LPS are inhibited by astaxanthin (Choi et al.
2009). This xanthophyll carotenoid improved the microbicidal and phagocytic
activity of neutrophils at 5 mM (Macedo et al. 2010). Furthermore, it suppresses
oxidative injury to proteins and lipids in human neutrophils (Macedo et al. 2010). A
reduction in the levels of NF-κB expression and improvement of expression of
SHP-1 level was observed in cells pre-treated with astaxanthin (Speranza et al.
2012). A human study was carried out on cohort of young women that are healthy
(Park et al. 2010). In this work, 2 mg of astaxanthin ingested by women for 8 weeks
resulted into a reduced level of C-reactive protein in blood, thus, expressing it antiinflammatory action. Furthermore, suppresses the synthesis of inflammatory markers as well as synthesis of ROS by down-regulating transcription factors of AP-1
and NF-κB. The data from this study indicated that ingestion of astaxanthin
improves immune stimuli in young women that are healthy, reduces the levels of
acute phase protein and damage of DNA (Park et al. 2010).
20.5.7 Anti-obesity Activity
Accumulation of high quantity of adipocytes leads to obesity and it has become a
global health problem. This is due to its ability to increase the risk of life threatening
disorders like obstructive sleep apnea, type-2 diabetes, and coronary heart diseases,
among others. Adipocyte size and number are used as index for determination of
adipose tissue mass (Zhao et al. 2016). Elevated storage of triacylglycerol (TAG)
and high quantity of adipose tissues as a result of differentiation and proliferation
leads to expansion of adipose tissue size. The differentiation of adipoctytes is a
multiplex process which involve variety of transcription factors including early upregulation of C/EBPβ expression. Then, the adipogenic factors like C/EBPα are
acted upon by C/EBPβ to modulate the late stage of adipose tissue formation and it
its deficiency, differenttiaon of adipocyte cannot not occur (Rosen and MacDougald
2006; Frey and Vogel 2011). The function of β-carotene in the adipose tissue has
gain more attention. It exert its effect by inhibiting adipose tissues formation and
differentiation (Zhao et al. 2016). Retinal, β-carotene and β-apo-8′-carotenal
remarkably reduced the differentiation of 3T3L1 preadipose tissue cell line to adipose tissues via upregulation of RAR and PPARγ2 suppression (Kawada et al.
2000). In another study, rosiglitazone in combination with (all-E)-lycopene,
β-carotene and other dietary constituents was used to conduct differentiation in
murine C3H10T1/2 adipocyte. It was observed that β-carotene inhibited lipid formation that was stimulated by rosiglitazone and also suppresses the expression of
differentiation markers in adipocytes like the C/EBPα, PPARα and PPARγ as well
as other genes linked to metabolism lipid (CPT1B, AP2 and LPL). Thus, the modulation of genes involved in differentiation of adipocytes were stimulated by
A. Olatunde et al.