427
that it has anti-diabetic activity. In a KKAy mice model, it was shown that fucoxanthin can decrease high blood glucose, though, it was not effect in C57BL/6 J mice
model (Hosokawa et al. 2010). A human study carried out by European Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition in Netherlands and a population work conducted in Queensland, Australia. In these studies, 37,846 women and men showed
an inverse correlation between dietary β-carotene and the risk incidence of
T2D. Also, it was stated that the concentration of β-carotene in serum is a vital
determining index of metabolic syndrome results (Suzuki et al. 2011).
20.5.5 Anti-human Immunodeficiency Virus (Anti-HIV)
The attack of Human immunodeficiency virus (anti-HIV) can leads to production of
ROS and progression of oxidative stress with corresponding suppression of the antioxidant system in the body. Therefore, the degenerating risk of HIV virus is evidently
seen via nutritional supplements rich in antioxidant especially carotenoids (Nagarajan
et al. 2017). It was reported that low level of provitamin A serum of human leads to
elevated loads of HIV in humans with tuberculosis of pulmonary system compared
to humans with high level of plasma carotenoids (van Lettow et al. 2004).
20.5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
Inflammation is the initial response of the defense system to irritation or infection
and it is also known as the innate system (Sathasivam and Ki 2018). Nevertheless,
some inflammatory responses can leads to several conditions including colitis,
pneumonia, gastritis, arthritis, neuro-inflammatory diseases, and hepatitis
(Pangestuti and Kim 2011). Hence, natural products, especially cartotenids are
gaining many attentions and could be utilized as synthetic agents for the prevention
and management of severe inflammatory disorders. This is linked to their inhibitory
action on the activities of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2) and inducible nitric oxide
synthase (iNOS) as well as their inhibitory action on the synthesis of prostaglandins
E2, pro-inflammatory markers and NO (Rajapakse et al. 2008; Peerapornpisal et al.
2010). Astaxanthin at the dose of 100 mg/kg body displayed a higher antiinflammatory action than that observed in 10 mg/kg of prednisolone, a synthetic
anti-inflammatory drug (Ohgami et al. 2003). This carotenoid also reduces the
action of NF-κB cascade by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory genes as
well as preventing the production of PGE 2 and NO. Additionally, it reduces the
function of iNOS promoter by impairing the activity of IkB kinase (Lee et al. 2003).
Some works using both in vitro and in vivo models have been carried out to determine the action of astaxanthin on inflammatory reactions induced by lipopolysaccharide (Ohgami et al. 2003; Shiratori et al. 2005). This carotenoid displayed a dose
dependent anti-inflammatory action on LPS fed mice by reducing inhibiting NOS
20 Carotenoids as Functional Bioactive Compounds
that it has anti-diabetic activity. In a KKAy mice model, it was shown that fucoxanthin can decrease high blood glucose, though, it was not effect in C57BL/6 J mice
model (Hosokawa et al. 2010). A human study carried out by European Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition in Netherlands and a population work conducted in Queensland, Australia. In these studies, 37,846 women and men showed
an inverse correlation between dietary β-carotene and the risk incidence of
T2D. Also, it was stated that the concentration of β-carotene in serum is a vital
determining index of metabolic syndrome results (Suzuki et al. 2011).
20.5.5 Anti-human Immunodeficiency Virus (Anti-HIV)
The attack of Human immunodeficiency virus (anti-HIV) can leads to production of
ROS and progression of oxidative stress with corresponding suppression of the antioxidant system in the body. Therefore, the degenerating risk of HIV virus is evidently
seen via nutritional supplements rich in antioxidant especially carotenoids (Nagarajan
et al. 2017). It was reported that low level of provitamin A serum of human leads to
elevated loads of HIV in humans with tuberculosis of pulmonary system compared
to humans with high level of plasma carotenoids (van Lettow et al. 2004).
20.5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
Inflammation is the initial response of the defense system to irritation or infection
and it is also known as the innate system (Sathasivam and Ki 2018). Nevertheless,
some inflammatory responses can leads to several conditions including colitis,
pneumonia, gastritis, arthritis, neuro-inflammatory diseases, and hepatitis
(Pangestuti and Kim 2011). Hence, natural products, especially cartotenids are
gaining many attentions and could be utilized as synthetic agents for the prevention
and management of severe inflammatory disorders. This is linked to their inhibitory
action on the activities of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2) and inducible nitric oxide
synthase (iNOS) as well as their inhibitory action on the synthesis of prostaglandins
E2, pro-inflammatory markers and NO (Rajapakse et al. 2008; Peerapornpisal et al.
2010). Astaxanthin at the dose of 100 mg/kg body displayed a higher antiinflammatory action than that observed in 10 mg/kg of prednisolone, a synthetic
anti-inflammatory drug (Ohgami et al. 2003). This carotenoid also reduces the
action of NF-κB cascade by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory genes as
well as preventing the production of PGE 2 and NO. Additionally, it reduces the
function of iNOS promoter by impairing the activity of IkB kinase (Lee et al. 2003).
Some works using both in vitro and in vivo models have been carried out to determine the action of astaxanthin on inflammatory reactions induced by lipopolysaccharide (Ohgami et al. 2003; Shiratori et al. 2005). This carotenoid displayed a dose
dependent anti-inflammatory action on LPS fed mice by reducing inhibiting NOS
20 Carotenoids as Functional Bioactive Compounds