irrespective of whether the funding is from the
public or private sector. Clean air is universally
viewed as a right. The question increasingly for
policy makers, as representatives of the public, is
how clean is clean enough? This question cannot
be addressed in isolation; it should be addressed in
the context of all the risk factors influencing
human health. The question for scientists is how
to create the scientific knowledge on air pollutants
and other risk factors that affect human health to
inform these important societal decisions.
Bibliography
Primary Literature
1. Adams WC (2002) Comparison of chamber and face
mask 6.6-hour exposure to 0.08 ppm ozone via squarewave and triangular profiles on pulmonary responses.
Inhal Toxicol 15:265–281
2. Adams WC (2003) Relation of pulmonary responses
induced by 6.6 h exposures to 0.08 ppm ozone and 2-h
exposures to 0.30 ppm via chamber and face-mask
inhalation. Inhal Toxicol 15:745–759
3. Adams WC (2006) Comparison of chamber 6.6 h
exposures to 0.04-0.08 ppm ozone via square-wave
and triangular profiles on pulmonary responses. Inhal
Toxicol 18:127–136
4. American Trucking Associations, Inc. v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999) DC circuit,
19 May 1999
5. Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R, McClellan RO,
Nicols GL (2010) Environmental medicine in context,
chapter 1. In: Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R,
Nichols GL (eds) Textbook of environmental medicine. Hodder Education, London, pp 3–21
6. Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R, McClellan RO,
Nicols GL (eds) (2010) Textbook of environmental
medicine. Hodder Education, London
7. Bachmann J (2007) Will the circle be unbroken: a
history of the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 57:652–697
8. Bell ML, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM,
Dominici F (2004) Ozone and short-term mortality in
95 US urban communities, 1987–2000. JAMA
292(19):2372–2378
9. Bell ML, Dominici F, Samet JM (2005) A metaanalysis of time-series studies of ozone and mortality
with comparison to the national morbidity, mortality,
and air pollution study. Epidemiology 16(4):436–445
10. Berry MA (1984) A method for examining policy
implementation: a study of decision-making for the
National
Ambient
Air
Quality
Standards,
1964–1984. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park
11. Breyer S (1982) Regulation and reform. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
12. Breyer S (1993) Breaking the vicious circle: toward
effective risk regulation. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA . (Based on 1992 Oliver Wendell
Holmes lectures at Harvard Law School)
13. Brown JS, Bateson TF, McDonnell WF (2008) Effects
of exposure to 0.06 ppm ozone in FEV 1 in humans: a
secondary analysis of existing data. Environ Health
Persp 116:1023–1026
14. CAA (1963) The Clean Air Act of 1963
15. CAA (1970) The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970P.L. 91–04 (December 31, 1970), Plus Technical
Amendments Made by P.L. 92–157 (November
18, 1971)
16. CAA (1977) The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
17. CAA (1990) The Clean Air Act Amendments to 1990,
Public Law No. 101–549; 104 STAT 2399, 1990
18. Clinton WJ, President (1993) Executive Order
12866 – regulatory planning and review. Fed Regis
58:51735
19. Clinton WJ, President (1997) Memorandum for the
Administrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency Implementation of Revised Air Quality Standards for Ozone and Particulate Matter
20. Dockery DW, Pope CA III, Xu X et al (1993) An
association between air pollution and mortality in six
U.S. cities. N Engl J Med 329:1753–1759
21. Emanuel R (2009) Assistant to the President and Chief of
Staff, Memorandum to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies. Fed Regist 74(13):4435–4436
22. Enstrom JE (2005) Fine particulate pollution and total
mortality among elderly Californians, 1973–2002.
Inhal Toxicol 17(14):803–816
23. Ferris BG Jr, Speizer FE, Spengler JD et al
(1979) Effects of sulfur oxides and respirable particles
on human health: methodology and demography of
populations in study. Am Res Respir Dis 120:767–779
24. Follinsbee LJ, McDonnell WF, Horstman DH
(1988) Pulmonary function and symptom responses
after 6-6-hour exposure to 0.12 ppm ozone with moderate exercise. JAPCA 38:28–35
25. Haagen-Smit AJ (1952) Chemistry and physiology of
Los Angeles smog. Ind Eng Chem 44:1342–1346
26. Horstman DH, Follinsbee LJ, Ives PJ, Abdul-SalaamS, McDonnell WF (1990) Ozone concentration and
pulmonary response relationships for 6.6-hour exposures with five hours of moderate exercise to 0.08,
0.10, and 0.12 ppm. Am Rev Respir Dis
142:1158–1163
27. Kennedy D (2005) Risk versus risk. Science 309:2137
28. Krewski D, Burnett RT, Goldberg, Hoover K,
Siemiatycki J, Jerrett M, Abrahamowicz M, White
WH (2000) Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities
Study and the American Cancer Society Study of
particulate air pollution and mortality. Special report,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
29. Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW
(2006) Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and
Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
43
public or private sector. Clean air is universally
viewed as a right. The question increasingly for
policy makers, as representatives of the public, is
how clean is clean enough? This question cannot
be addressed in isolation; it should be addressed in
the context of all the risk factors influencing
human health. The question for scientists is how
to create the scientific knowledge on air pollutants
and other risk factors that affect human health to
inform these important societal decisions.
Bibliography
Primary Literature
1. Adams WC (2002) Comparison of chamber and face
mask 6.6-hour exposure to 0.08 ppm ozone via squarewave and triangular profiles on pulmonary responses.
Inhal Toxicol 15:265–281
2. Adams WC (2003) Relation of pulmonary responses
induced by 6.6 h exposures to 0.08 ppm ozone and 2-h
exposures to 0.30 ppm via chamber and face-mask
inhalation. Inhal Toxicol 15:745–759
3. Adams WC (2006) Comparison of chamber 6.6 h
exposures to 0.04-0.08 ppm ozone via square-wave
and triangular profiles on pulmonary responses. Inhal
Toxicol 18:127–136
4. American Trucking Associations, Inc. v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999) DC circuit,
19 May 1999
5. Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R, McClellan RO,
Nicols GL (2010) Environmental medicine in context,
chapter 1. In: Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R,
Nichols GL (eds) Textbook of environmental medicine. Hodder Education, London, pp 3–21
6. Ayres JG, Harrison RM, Maynard R, McClellan RO,
Nicols GL (eds) (2010) Textbook of environmental
medicine. Hodder Education, London
7. Bachmann J (2007) Will the circle be unbroken: a
history of the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 57:652–697
8. Bell ML, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM,
Dominici F (2004) Ozone and short-term mortality in
95 US urban communities, 1987–2000. JAMA
292(19):2372–2378
9. Bell ML, Dominici F, Samet JM (2005) A metaanalysis of time-series studies of ozone and mortality
with comparison to the national morbidity, mortality,
and air pollution study. Epidemiology 16(4):436–445
10. Berry MA (1984) A method for examining policy
implementation: a study of decision-making for the
National
Ambient
Air
Quality
Standards,
1964–1984. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park
11. Breyer S (1982) Regulation and reform. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
12. Breyer S (1993) Breaking the vicious circle: toward
effective risk regulation. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA . (Based on 1992 Oliver Wendell
Holmes lectures at Harvard Law School)
13. Brown JS, Bateson TF, McDonnell WF (2008) Effects
of exposure to 0.06 ppm ozone in FEV 1 in humans: a
secondary analysis of existing data. Environ Health
Persp 116:1023–1026
14. CAA (1963) The Clean Air Act of 1963
15. CAA (1970) The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970P.L. 91–04 (December 31, 1970), Plus Technical
Amendments Made by P.L. 92–157 (November
18, 1971)
16. CAA (1977) The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
17. CAA (1990) The Clean Air Act Amendments to 1990,
Public Law No. 101–549; 104 STAT 2399, 1990
18. Clinton WJ, President (1993) Executive Order
12866 – regulatory planning and review. Fed Regis
58:51735
19. Clinton WJ, President (1997) Memorandum for the
Administrator of the Environmental Protection
Agency Implementation of Revised Air Quality Standards for Ozone and Particulate Matter
20. Dockery DW, Pope CA III, Xu X et al (1993) An
association between air pollution and mortality in six
U.S. cities. N Engl J Med 329:1753–1759
21. Emanuel R (2009) Assistant to the President and Chief of
Staff, Memorandum to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies. Fed Regist 74(13):4435–4436
22. Enstrom JE (2005) Fine particulate pollution and total
mortality among elderly Californians, 1973–2002.
Inhal Toxicol 17(14):803–816
23. Ferris BG Jr, Speizer FE, Spengler JD et al
(1979) Effects of sulfur oxides and respirable particles
on human health: methodology and demography of
populations in study. Am Res Respir Dis 120:767–779
24. Follinsbee LJ, McDonnell WF, Horstman DH
(1988) Pulmonary function and symptom responses
after 6-6-hour exposure to 0.12 ppm ozone with moderate exercise. JAPCA 38:28–35
25. Haagen-Smit AJ (1952) Chemistry and physiology of
Los Angeles smog. Ind Eng Chem 44:1342–1346
26. Horstman DH, Follinsbee LJ, Ives PJ, Abdul-SalaamS, McDonnell WF (1990) Ozone concentration and
pulmonary response relationships for 6.6-hour exposures with five hours of moderate exercise to 0.08,
0.10, and 0.12 ppm. Am Rev Respir Dis
142:1158–1163
27. Kennedy D (2005) Risk versus risk. Science 309:2137
28. Krewski D, Burnett RT, Goldberg, Hoover K,
Siemiatycki J, Jerrett M, Abrahamowicz M, White
WH (2000) Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities
Study and the American Cancer Society Study of
particulate air pollution and mortality. Special report,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
29. Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW
(2006) Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and
Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
43