13 Environmental and Anthropogenic Determinants of Water Chemistry …
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events with the soil frozen—as documented by Siwek et al. [45] for changes in the
K
+ concentration in foothill streams. In the course of snowmelt events with the soil
frozen, streams were recharged first by snowmelt waters flowing across the frozen
ground with a low K
+ concentration. The soil would unfreeze over time, and increasingly deep soil horizons would yield higher amounts of K
+ due to flushing processes
carrying the ions to stream channels. Hence, K
+ concentrations in streams were
higher during these types of events during the falling limb versus the rising limb of
the hydrograph [45].
13.3 Climate and Vegetation Elevation Zones
Climate and vegetation zones based on elevation are yet another factor that affects the
water chemistry of stream water and groundwater across the Carpathians. According
to Siwek et al. [13], elevation effects follow the geologic structure in terms of their
impact on spring water chemistry in the Bieszczady Mountains. Elevation effects
first and foremost determine SO 4
2− and Cl
− concentrations—the higher elevation of
the spring, the higher the SO 4
2− concentration and the lower the Cl
− concentration.
This results from an increasing effect of precipitation rich in SO 4
2− on spring water
chemistry with increasing elevations. Similar conclusions were drawn by Małecka
[16] and Małecka et al. [47] for the Tatra Mountains: groundwater chemistry and
stream water chemistry at higher elevations in the Tatra Mountains are 90% determined by the content of precipitation. At lower elevations, the impact of precipitation
on Tatra water chemistry did not exceed 30%.
Research by Jasik et al. [11] in the Gorce Mountains indicates that the species
composition of the forest changes with elevation and also strongly affects spring
water chemistry. Springs whose recharge areas are located in the upper subalpine
zone covered with spruce stands have a lower pH and lower concentration of Ca
2+ ,
Mg
2+ and HCO 3
− than springs whose recharge areas are found at lower elevations
covered with beech-fir stands.
The location of a catchment in a given climate zone also determines water chemistry throughout the year via its hydrochemical regime. ˙
Zelazny [9] identified two
types of stream hydrochemical regimes in the Tatra Mountains: (1) high mountain
regime, (2) middle mountain regime. In the case of both regimes, the lowest TDS,
conductivity, and concentration of most main ions occur during the spring snowmelt.
However, in streams with a high mountain regime, the lowest TDS, lowest conductivity, and lowest ion concentrations occur later than in streams with a middle mountain regime. This is due to the snowmelt season occurring later and lasting longer at
higher elevations versus lower elevations.
309
events with the soil frozen—as documented by Siwek et al. [45] for changes in the
K
+ concentration in foothill streams. In the course of snowmelt events with the soil
frozen, streams were recharged first by snowmelt waters flowing across the frozen
ground with a low K
+ concentration. The soil would unfreeze over time, and increasingly deep soil horizons would yield higher amounts of K
+ due to flushing processes
carrying the ions to stream channels. Hence, K
+ concentrations in streams were
higher during these types of events during the falling limb versus the rising limb of
the hydrograph [45].
13.3 Climate and Vegetation Elevation Zones
Climate and vegetation zones based on elevation are yet another factor that affects the
water chemistry of stream water and groundwater across the Carpathians. According
to Siwek et al. [13], elevation effects follow the geologic structure in terms of their
impact on spring water chemistry in the Bieszczady Mountains. Elevation effects
first and foremost determine SO 4
2− and Cl
− concentrations—the higher elevation of
the spring, the higher the SO 4
2− concentration and the lower the Cl
− concentration.
This results from an increasing effect of precipitation rich in SO 4
2− on spring water
chemistry with increasing elevations. Similar conclusions were drawn by Małecka
[16] and Małecka et al. [47] for the Tatra Mountains: groundwater chemistry and
stream water chemistry at higher elevations in the Tatra Mountains are 90% determined by the content of precipitation. At lower elevations, the impact of precipitation
on Tatra water chemistry did not exceed 30%.
Research by Jasik et al. [11] in the Gorce Mountains indicates that the species
composition of the forest changes with elevation and also strongly affects spring
water chemistry. Springs whose recharge areas are located in the upper subalpine
zone covered with spruce stands have a lower pH and lower concentration of Ca
2+ ,
Mg
2+ and HCO 3
− than springs whose recharge areas are found at lower elevations
covered with beech-fir stands.
The location of a catchment in a given climate zone also determines water chemistry throughout the year via its hydrochemical regime. ˙
Zelazny [9] identified two
types of stream hydrochemical regimes in the Tatra Mountains: (1) high mountain
regime, (2) middle mountain regime. In the case of both regimes, the lowest TDS,
conductivity, and concentration of most main ions occur during the spring snowmelt.
However, in streams with a high mountain regime, the lowest TDS, lowest conductivity, and lowest ion concentrations occur later than in streams with a middle mountain regime. This is due to the snowmelt season occurring later and lasting longer at
higher elevations versus lower elevations.