310
J. P. Siwek
13.4 Anthropogenic Determinants
13.4.1 Acid Rain
The effect of acid rain on the chemistry of stream water and groundwater is observed
first and foremost in the western and central parts of the Carpathians. This region
experienced a significant influx of acidic emissions (SO 2 and NO 2 ) in the 1970s and
1980s from major industrial areas in Upper Silesia, Kraków, and the so-called Black
Triangle, which was a vast geographic region consisting of southwestern Poland,
northern Czechoslovakia, and southeastern East Germany [48]. The current level of
gaseous pollution in the region is many times lower than in the 1970s and 1980s
[49]. This is due to a large decline in SO 2 pollution and a smaller decline in NO 2
pollution in more recent years. In 1980 the mean rate of atmospheric SO 2 deposition
in Poland was 132.1 kg/ha, while in 2016 it was 18.6 kg/ha. In 1985 the mean rate of
atmospheric NO 2 deposition in Poland was 43.3 kg/ha, while in 2016 it was 23.2 kg/ha
[50, 51]. The decrease in emissions of acidic gases led to a gradual increase in the
pH of atmospheric precipitation in the Carpathians, although it remains acidic. For
example, the mean weighted pH of precipitation in the Pogórze Wi´ snickie Foothills
in the years 1991–1994 was 4.42 while in the years 2002–2004 the pH was somewhat
higher at 4.68 [48, 52]. The increasing trend in the pH of atmospheric precipitation
was also documented by Rzycho´ n and Worsztynowicz [53] in the Tatra Mountains
in the years 1992–2005.
Research by Kosmowska et al. [49] in the Skrzyczne Massif in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski
Mountains shows that the effect of acid rain on stream water chemistry remains
pronounced even today—several decades after the era of the greatest atmospheric
deposition of sulfur and nitrogen. The acidity of the natural environment remains
the most important factor shaping the chemistry of stream water in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski
Mountains [49]. Key solutes have been flushed from soils by acidic rainfalls for many
years. This has led to the current situation where TDS, water conductivity, and the
concentrations of most main ions in streams draining the Skrzyczne Massif are several
times lower than those for other Carpathian streams draining catchments in similar
geologic structure but experiencing much less acid rain [24, 49, 54, 55]. Furthermore,
the concentrations of main cations in the streams flowing across the Skrzyczne Massif
in the 1950s and 1960s were much higher than they are at present [49]. Rzycho´ n
and Worsztynowicz [53] documented the similar decline in the concentration of
main cations in two ponds in the High Tatra Mountains associated with long-term
acidification of precipitation in the area. The predominant anions in streams draining
the Skrzyczne Massif today are SO 4
2− and NO 3
− , which is not encountered in other
parts of the Carpathians characterized by much less acidic deposition [46]. According
to Małek and Krakowian [56], the effect of acidic atmospheric deposition on stream
water chemistry in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski Mountains is most readily observed in spring
snowmelt events when a large quantity of acidic precipitation becomes released over
a short period in the form of melting snow. This leads to a large decline in water pH
in streams.
J. P. Siwek
13.4 Anthropogenic Determinants
13.4.1 Acid Rain
The effect of acid rain on the chemistry of stream water and groundwater is observed
first and foremost in the western and central parts of the Carpathians. This region
experienced a significant influx of acidic emissions (SO 2 and NO 2 ) in the 1970s and
1980s from major industrial areas in Upper Silesia, Kraków, and the so-called Black
Triangle, which was a vast geographic region consisting of southwestern Poland,
northern Czechoslovakia, and southeastern East Germany [48]. The current level of
gaseous pollution in the region is many times lower than in the 1970s and 1980s
[49]. This is due to a large decline in SO 2 pollution and a smaller decline in NO 2
pollution in more recent years. In 1980 the mean rate of atmospheric SO 2 deposition
in Poland was 132.1 kg/ha, while in 2016 it was 18.6 kg/ha. In 1985 the mean rate of
atmospheric NO 2 deposition in Poland was 43.3 kg/ha, while in 2016 it was 23.2 kg/ha
[50, 51]. The decrease in emissions of acidic gases led to a gradual increase in the
pH of atmospheric precipitation in the Carpathians, although it remains acidic. For
example, the mean weighted pH of precipitation in the Pogórze Wi´ snickie Foothills
in the years 1991–1994 was 4.42 while in the years 2002–2004 the pH was somewhat
higher at 4.68 [48, 52]. The increasing trend in the pH of atmospheric precipitation
was also documented by Rzycho´ n and Worsztynowicz [53] in the Tatra Mountains
in the years 1992–2005.
Research by Kosmowska et al. [49] in the Skrzyczne Massif in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski
Mountains shows that the effect of acid rain on stream water chemistry remains
pronounced even today—several decades after the era of the greatest atmospheric
deposition of sulfur and nitrogen. The acidity of the natural environment remains
the most important factor shaping the chemistry of stream water in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski
Mountains [49]. Key solutes have been flushed from soils by acidic rainfalls for many
years. This has led to the current situation where TDS, water conductivity, and the
concentrations of most main ions in streams draining the Skrzyczne Massif are several
times lower than those for other Carpathian streams draining catchments in similar
geologic structure but experiencing much less acid rain [24, 49, 54, 55]. Furthermore,
the concentrations of main cations in the streams flowing across the Skrzyczne Massif
in the 1950s and 1960s were much higher than they are at present [49]. Rzycho´ n
and Worsztynowicz [53] documented the similar decline in the concentration of
main cations in two ponds in the High Tatra Mountains associated with long-term
acidification of precipitation in the area. The predominant anions in streams draining
the Skrzyczne Massif today are SO 4
2− and NO 3
− , which is not encountered in other
parts of the Carpathians characterized by much less acidic deposition [46]. According
to Małek and Krakowian [56], the effect of acidic atmospheric deposition on stream
water chemistry in the Beskid ´
Sl˛ aski Mountains is most readily observed in spring
snowmelt events when a large quantity of acidic precipitation becomes released over
a short period in the form of melting snow. This leads to a large decline in water pH
in streams.