298
J. P. Siwek
into Carpathian streams leading to excess nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in
stream water.
Keywords The Carpathians · Water chemistry · Environmental and anthropogenic
factors · Geology · Acid rain · Deforestation · Tourism activity · Poland
13.1 Introduction
Carpathian catchments are characterized by high specific runoff [L/s/km
2 ] relative
to catchments in other parts of Poland. This is due to high atmospheric precipitation
in the Carpathian region. Mean runoff depth in Poland equals a mere 164 mm, while
mean runoff depth in the Tatra Mountains and the Podhale region (Carpathians)
stands at 661 mm. The corresponding value for the western part of the Beskidy
Mountains is 444 mm and for the Bieszczady Mountains 503 mm [1, 2]. Hence,
the Carpathians determine the size of the water supply for the larger part of Poland
[3, 4]. The discharge of streams in the Carpathians is characterized by very large
changes over time due to the low retention capacity of soils and parent material
in the region. Streams in the Carpathian region are characterized by the frequent
occurrence of abrupt flooding on the one hand and severe droughts on the other hand
[2, 5–7]. This large variability in stream discharge makes it very difficult to utilize
the area’s water resources [2]. Water quality is another potentially limiting factor
in terms of how the area’s waters can be utilized [8]. The quality of stream water
and groundwater is affected by many different naturals and anthropogenic factors
that may only be identified in small headwater catchments in which the number of
factors is limited. Small headwater catchments play an immensely important role in
the water chemistry of Carpathian river waters. It is these catchments that “generate”
the water chemistry of river water further downstream. The purpose of this work is
to use numerous case studies of small headwater Carpathian catchments to identify
natural and anthropogenic factors that determine the stream water and groundwater
chemistry in the Carpathians.
13.2 Environmental Determinants
13.2.1 Geology
Geologic structure is one of the most important elements of the natural environment
determining stream water and groundwater chemistry in the Carpathians. Geology is
noted to be the most important determinant of water chemistry in a variety of areas in
the region: the Tatra Mountains [9], ´
Sl˛ aski Beskid Mountains [10], Gorce Mountains
[11], Carpathian Foothills [12], and the Bieszczady Mountains [13].
J. P. Siwek
into Carpathian streams leading to excess nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in
stream water.
Keywords The Carpathians · Water chemistry · Environmental and anthropogenic
factors · Geology · Acid rain · Deforestation · Tourism activity · Poland
13.1 Introduction
Carpathian catchments are characterized by high specific runoff [L/s/km
2 ] relative
to catchments in other parts of Poland. This is due to high atmospheric precipitation
in the Carpathian region. Mean runoff depth in Poland equals a mere 164 mm, while
mean runoff depth in the Tatra Mountains and the Podhale region (Carpathians)
stands at 661 mm. The corresponding value for the western part of the Beskidy
Mountains is 444 mm and for the Bieszczady Mountains 503 mm [1, 2]. Hence,
the Carpathians determine the size of the water supply for the larger part of Poland
[3, 4]. The discharge of streams in the Carpathians is characterized by very large
changes over time due to the low retention capacity of soils and parent material
in the region. Streams in the Carpathian region are characterized by the frequent
occurrence of abrupt flooding on the one hand and severe droughts on the other hand
[2, 5–7]. This large variability in stream discharge makes it very difficult to utilize
the area’s water resources [2]. Water quality is another potentially limiting factor
in terms of how the area’s waters can be utilized [8]. The quality of stream water
and groundwater is affected by many different naturals and anthropogenic factors
that may only be identified in small headwater catchments in which the number of
factors is limited. Small headwater catchments play an immensely important role in
the water chemistry of Carpathian river waters. It is these catchments that “generate”
the water chemistry of river water further downstream. The purpose of this work is
to use numerous case studies of small headwater Carpathian catchments to identify
natural and anthropogenic factors that determine the stream water and groundwater
chemistry in the Carpathians.
13.2 Environmental Determinants
13.2.1 Geology
Geologic structure is one of the most important elements of the natural environment
determining stream water and groundwater chemistry in the Carpathians. Geology is
noted to be the most important determinant of water chemistry in a variety of areas in
the region: the Tatra Mountains [9], ´
Sl˛ aski Beskid Mountains [10], Gorce Mountains
[11], Carpathian Foothills [12], and the Bieszczady Mountains [13].