Chapter 13
Environmental and Anthropogenic
Determinants of Water Chemistry
in the Carpathians
Joanna P. Siwek
Abstract The most important natural and anthropogenic factors affecting stream
water and groundwater chemistry in the Carpathians were identified mainly on the
basis of hydrochemical case studies from numerous small headwater Carpathian
catchments. The most important natural factor determining water chemistry in the
Carpathians is geology. In areas formed of poorly soluble granite and gneiss rocks
(crystalline portion of the Tatra Mountains), the total dissolved solids (TDS) and
concentration of main cations and anions are many times lower than that in areas
formed of highly soluble carbonate rocks (sedimentary portion of the Tatra Mountains, Pieniny Mountains) and also clastic rocks forming so-called Carpathian flysch
(Beskidy Mountains, Carpathian Foothills). Stream water and spring water chemistry
in the Carpathians change primarily due to hydrologic factors—changes in discharge.
As discharge increases, TDS declines and the concentrations of most main ions also
decline, while the concentration of K
+ , NO 3
− , and PO 4
3− increases. Elevation and
geographic location of springs and streams in given climate zone and vegetation
zone are additional natural factors affecting water chemistry, and this is particularly
true of SO 4
2− and Cl
− concentration as well as pH. Anthropogenic factors affecting
water chemistry in the Carpathians include acid rain, deforestation, agriculture, and
tourist-generated wastewater. The effects of acid rain are felt in the form of low
concentrations of main cations in stream and spring water in the western part of the
Carpathians. This region was affected by very high acidic sulfur and nitrogen deposition in the second half of the twentieth century. Deforestation in the Carpathians
impacts mainly spruce monocultures declining due to acid rain, strong winds, and
bark beetle infestation, and is the main cause of increasing NO 3
− concentrations in
stream water and spring water. Agricultural land use does not threaten stream water
and groundwater due to low usage of mineral fertilizer. Threats that do exist are associated with unregulated releases of wastewater in rural areas. Wastewater generated
by tourists is a major threat to stream water quality in areas with a high environmental value that are highly popular with tourists. Tourist lodges release wastewater
J. P. Siwek (B)
Department of Hydrology, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian
University in Kraków, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
e-mail: joanna.siwek@uj.edu.pl
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Zeleˇ náková et al. (eds.), Quality of Water Resources in Poland, Springer Water,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64892-3_13
297
Environmental and Anthropogenic
Determinants of Water Chemistry
in the Carpathians
Joanna P. Siwek
Abstract The most important natural and anthropogenic factors affecting stream
water and groundwater chemistry in the Carpathians were identified mainly on the
basis of hydrochemical case studies from numerous small headwater Carpathian
catchments. The most important natural factor determining water chemistry in the
Carpathians is geology. In areas formed of poorly soluble granite and gneiss rocks
(crystalline portion of the Tatra Mountains), the total dissolved solids (TDS) and
concentration of main cations and anions are many times lower than that in areas
formed of highly soluble carbonate rocks (sedimentary portion of the Tatra Mountains, Pieniny Mountains) and also clastic rocks forming so-called Carpathian flysch
(Beskidy Mountains, Carpathian Foothills). Stream water and spring water chemistry
in the Carpathians change primarily due to hydrologic factors—changes in discharge.
As discharge increases, TDS declines and the concentrations of most main ions also
decline, while the concentration of K
+ , NO 3
− , and PO 4
3− increases. Elevation and
geographic location of springs and streams in given climate zone and vegetation
zone are additional natural factors affecting water chemistry, and this is particularly
true of SO 4
2− and Cl
− concentration as well as pH. Anthropogenic factors affecting
water chemistry in the Carpathians include acid rain, deforestation, agriculture, and
tourist-generated wastewater. The effects of acid rain are felt in the form of low
concentrations of main cations in stream and spring water in the western part of the
Carpathians. This region was affected by very high acidic sulfur and nitrogen deposition in the second half of the twentieth century. Deforestation in the Carpathians
impacts mainly spruce monocultures declining due to acid rain, strong winds, and
bark beetle infestation, and is the main cause of increasing NO 3
− concentrations in
stream water and spring water. Agricultural land use does not threaten stream water
and groundwater due to low usage of mineral fertilizer. Threats that do exist are associated with unregulated releases of wastewater in rural areas. Wastewater generated
by tourists is a major threat to stream water quality in areas with a high environmental value that are highly popular with tourists. Tourist lodges release wastewater
J. P. Siwek (B)
Department of Hydrology, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian
University in Kraków, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
e-mail: joanna.siwek@uj.edu.pl
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Zeleˇ náková et al. (eds.), Quality of Water Resources in Poland, Springer Water,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64892-3_13
297