standards for ambient atmosphere levels of Pb have been defined in Europe
(Directive 1999/30/CE). More recently, this Directive has been integrated into
2008/50/CE which recommends the annual limit values for Pb at 500 ng/m
3 . The
heavy metal(loids) such as As, Cd, Ni, and Hg are included in Directive 2004/107/
CE, which recommends the annual target values for Ni, Cd, and As at 20, 5, and
6 ng/m
3 , respectively, in the atmosphere.
However, numerous studies have reported high levels of metal-PM in the atmosphere of urban areas characterized by high population densities, several folds higher
than the threshold levels (Lanzerstorfer 2018; Weerasundara et al. 2017). A summary of atmospheric heavy metal(loid) level (ng/m
3 ) associated with particulate
matter of different fractions (PM 10 , PM 7.5 , PM 2.5 , PM 1 ) is shown on Table 2. A
study conducted in Cantabria region, Spain (Fernández-Olmo et al. 2016), reported
high concentrations of metal-PM in the atmosphere: 9.24, 0.25, 354, 3.38, 0.55,
17.5, 20.2, and 4.86 ng/m
3 , respectively, for PMs of Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, As, Mn, Cu, and
Cr. The mean value of PM of As was reported to be 0.534 ng/m
3 in Łódź, Poland
(Krzemińska-Flowers et al. 2006); 230–2,230 ng/m
3 in Islamabad, Pakistan (Shigeta
2000); 0.91 ng/m
3 in the UK (Directive 2005); 7.77 ng/m
3 in Tehran, Iran
(Hassanvand et al. 2015); and 5–20 ng/m
3 in Cologne, Germany (Iffland et al.
1994). The reported atmospheric heavy metal(loid) concentrations in La Plata
City, Argentina, are Zn 273 Æ 227, Cd 0.41 Æ 0.42, Ni 3.2 Æ 3.5, Mg
1,472 Æ 967, Pb 64 Æ 62, Ca 5,343 Æ 3,614, Cu 30 Æ 27, Fe 1,183 Æ 838, Mn
26 Æ 20, and Cr 4.3 Æ 2.4 ng/m
3 (Bilos et al. 2001).
The concentration of Cd-PM ranges between 0.05 and 0.2 ng/m
3 in Northern
Europe, 0.06 and 0.12 ng/m
3 in Southern Europe, and 0.2 and 0.5 ng/m
3 in Central
Europe (Aas and Breivik 2005). Similarly, Cd atmospheric concentration ranged
from 6–360 ng/m
3 in the USA and 10–53 ng/m
3 in Japan (WHO 1987b). Momani
et al. (2000) showed the Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd levels of 344, 170, 291, and 3.8 ng/m
3 ,
respectively, in the atmosphere of Amman, Jordan.
The concentration of metal-PM in the atmosphere varies among different areas
such as urban, rural, and industrial areas. For example, the mean concentration of
Cu-PM in atmosphere ranges between 5 and 200 ng/m
3 in rural and urban areas
(ATSDR 2002). The average concentration of Pb-PM in global urban and industrial
atmosphere is 0.2–0.6 μg/m
3 and 0.5–1.0 μg/m
3 (Shigeta 2000), respectively, while
global industrial, urban, and rural levels of As-PM in atmosphere are >1,000 ng/m
3 ,
3–200 ng/m
3 , and 0.02–4 ng/m
3 (Facts 2008), respectively. The varying atmospheric
concentration of Cd-PM has been reported between 1 and 3 ng/m
3 in rural and urban
areas (Seemayer and Hadnagy 1992). The mean Cd-PM concentrations in industrial,
rural, and urban atmosphere are 15–150 ng/m
3 , 0.1–5 ng/m
3 , and 2–15 ng/m
3
(Friberg et al. 1992).
In the city of Irbid, Jordan, the measured concentrations of metal-PM were
986 ng/m
3 Fe, 111 ng/m
3 Pb, 117 ng/m
3 Cu, 23 ng/m
3 Mn, 8 ng/m
3 Ni, and
283 ng/m
3 Zn in urban area, while the reported values for the metal-PM were
682 ng/m
3 , 21 ng/m
3 , 55 ng/m
3 , 17 ng/m
3 , 5 ng/m
3 , and 213 ng/m
3 for Fe, Pb,
Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn in rural areas (Gharaibeh et al. 2010). The highest level of
Pb-PM, 2,147 ng/m
3 , was recorded at an industrial station in Coimbatore, India
70
M. Shahid et al.
(Directive 1999/30/CE). More recently, this Directive has been integrated into
2008/50/CE which recommends the annual limit values for Pb at 500 ng/m
3 . The
heavy metal(loids) such as As, Cd, Ni, and Hg are included in Directive 2004/107/
CE, which recommends the annual target values for Ni, Cd, and As at 20, 5, and
6 ng/m
3 , respectively, in the atmosphere.
However, numerous studies have reported high levels of metal-PM in the atmosphere of urban areas characterized by high population densities, several folds higher
than the threshold levels (Lanzerstorfer 2018; Weerasundara et al. 2017). A summary of atmospheric heavy metal(loid) level (ng/m
3 ) associated with particulate
matter of different fractions (PM 10 , PM 7.5 , PM 2.5 , PM 1 ) is shown on Table 2. A
study conducted in Cantabria region, Spain (Fernández-Olmo et al. 2016), reported
high concentrations of metal-PM in the atmosphere: 9.24, 0.25, 354, 3.38, 0.55,
17.5, 20.2, and 4.86 ng/m
3 , respectively, for PMs of Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, As, Mn, Cu, and
Cr. The mean value of PM of As was reported to be 0.534 ng/m
3 in Łódź, Poland
(Krzemińska-Flowers et al. 2006); 230–2,230 ng/m
3 in Islamabad, Pakistan (Shigeta
2000); 0.91 ng/m
3 in the UK (Directive 2005); 7.77 ng/m
3 in Tehran, Iran
(Hassanvand et al. 2015); and 5–20 ng/m
3 in Cologne, Germany (Iffland et al.
1994). The reported atmospheric heavy metal(loid) concentrations in La Plata
City, Argentina, are Zn 273 Æ 227, Cd 0.41 Æ 0.42, Ni 3.2 Æ 3.5, Mg
1,472 Æ 967, Pb 64 Æ 62, Ca 5,343 Æ 3,614, Cu 30 Æ 27, Fe 1,183 Æ 838, Mn
26 Æ 20, and Cr 4.3 Æ 2.4 ng/m
3 (Bilos et al. 2001).
The concentration of Cd-PM ranges between 0.05 and 0.2 ng/m
3 in Northern
Europe, 0.06 and 0.12 ng/m
3 in Southern Europe, and 0.2 and 0.5 ng/m
3 in Central
Europe (Aas and Breivik 2005). Similarly, Cd atmospheric concentration ranged
from 6–360 ng/m
3 in the USA and 10–53 ng/m
3 in Japan (WHO 1987b). Momani
et al. (2000) showed the Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd levels of 344, 170, 291, and 3.8 ng/m
3 ,
respectively, in the atmosphere of Amman, Jordan.
The concentration of metal-PM in the atmosphere varies among different areas
such as urban, rural, and industrial areas. For example, the mean concentration of
Cu-PM in atmosphere ranges between 5 and 200 ng/m
3 in rural and urban areas
(ATSDR 2002). The average concentration of Pb-PM in global urban and industrial
atmosphere is 0.2–0.6 μg/m
3 and 0.5–1.0 μg/m
3 (Shigeta 2000), respectively, while
global industrial, urban, and rural levels of As-PM in atmosphere are >1,000 ng/m
3 ,
3–200 ng/m
3 , and 0.02–4 ng/m
3 (Facts 2008), respectively. The varying atmospheric
concentration of Cd-PM has been reported between 1 and 3 ng/m
3 in rural and urban
areas (Seemayer and Hadnagy 1992). The mean Cd-PM concentrations in industrial,
rural, and urban atmosphere are 15–150 ng/m
3 , 0.1–5 ng/m
3 , and 2–15 ng/m
3
(Friberg et al. 1992).
In the city of Irbid, Jordan, the measured concentrations of metal-PM were
986 ng/m
3 Fe, 111 ng/m
3 Pb, 117 ng/m
3 Cu, 23 ng/m
3 Mn, 8 ng/m
3 Ni, and
283 ng/m
3 Zn in urban area, while the reported values for the metal-PM were
682 ng/m
3 , 21 ng/m
3 , 55 ng/m
3 , 17 ng/m
3 , 5 ng/m
3 , and 213 ng/m
3 for Fe, Pb,
Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn in rural areas (Gharaibeh et al. 2010). The highest level of
Pb-PM, 2,147 ng/m
3 , was recorded at an industrial station in Coimbatore, India
70
M. Shahid et al.