6 Human Diseases Associated with Direct Inhalation
of Metal-PM from the Atmosphere
Ambient air pollution is considered an important source of human diseases (Brauer
et al. 2015; Mukherjee and Agrawal 2017). Although metal-PM ingestion is considered as a secondary exposure pathway in adults, it is the main route by which
Table 11 Hazard index (HI) of more than one metal(loid) for adult and children presented in
Tables 7 and 9
Plants
Metals
Adult
Child
Reference
Lactuca sativa
As, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn
0.065
0.127
(Schreck et al. 2012b)
Pongamia pinnata
As, Cd
0.005
0.011
(Gajbhiye et al. 2016a)
Fagus sylvatica
Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Zn
0.008
0.017
(Türtscher et al. 2017)
Ficus benghalensis
Pb, Cd
0.001
0.003
(Parekh et al. 2016)
Petroselinum crispum
As, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn
0.161
0.313
(Schreck et al. 2012b)
Raphnus sativus
Pb, Cd, Cu
0.587
1.144
(Salim et al. 1993b)
Mangifera indica
Cu, Cr, Mn
0.002
0.004
(Gajbhiye et al. 2016a)
Brassica oleracea
Cd, Zn, Sb
0.924
1.801
(Xiong et al. 2014a)
Spinacia oleracea
Cd, Zn, Sb
0.053
0.103
(Xiong et al. 2014a)
Table 12 Oral reference doses (RfD) and upper tolerable daily intake limit (UL) for metals
(USEPA 2009)
Metals
UL (mg/day)
RfD (mg/kg/day)
CSF (mg/kg/day)
Fe
0.45 Â 10
2
7 Â 10
À1
1.5
Zn
0.4 Â 10
2
3 Â 10
À1
0.0085
Cu
0.10 Â 10
2
4 Â 10
À2
6.1
Pb
2.40 Â 10
À1
4 Â 10
À3
–
Cd
6.40 Â 10
À2
1 Â 10
À3
0.5
Mn
0.11 Â 10
2
33 Â 10
À3
0.84
Cr
1.05 Â 10
À2
0.015 Â 10
2
–
Ni
0.01 Â 10
2
2 Â 10
À2
–
As
–
3 Â 10
À4
–
Table 13 Different parameters and their values used to calculate the risk assessment factors
Abbreviation
Parameters
Value
Reference
C metal (mg/kg) Concentration of metal in plant edible part
–
–
IR (g/day)
Average ingestion rate of vegetable/crop
100.4
(USEPA 1997)
Cf
Conversion factor
0.085
(Rehman et al. 2016)
EF (days/year) Exposure frequency
365
–
ED (years)
Exposure duration (average life expectancy) 64.4
(WHO 2015)
AT (days)
Average time of exposure
23,506 (Shahid et al. 2017c)
BW (kg)
Average body weight
70
(WHO 2016)
Ecotoxicology of Heavy Metal(loid)-Enriched Particulate Matter: Foliar. . .
91
of Metal-PM from the Atmosphere
Ambient air pollution is considered an important source of human diseases (Brauer
et al. 2015; Mukherjee and Agrawal 2017). Although metal-PM ingestion is considered as a secondary exposure pathway in adults, it is the main route by which
Table 11 Hazard index (HI) of more than one metal(loid) for adult and children presented in
Tables 7 and 9
Plants
Metals
Adult
Child
Reference
Lactuca sativa
As, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn
0.065
0.127
(Schreck et al. 2012b)
Pongamia pinnata
As, Cd
0.005
0.011
(Gajbhiye et al. 2016a)
Fagus sylvatica
Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Zn
0.008
0.017
(Türtscher et al. 2017)
Ficus benghalensis
Pb, Cd
0.001
0.003
(Parekh et al. 2016)
Petroselinum crispum
As, Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn
0.161
0.313
(Schreck et al. 2012b)
Raphnus sativus
Pb, Cd, Cu
0.587
1.144
(Salim et al. 1993b)
Mangifera indica
Cu, Cr, Mn
0.002
0.004
(Gajbhiye et al. 2016a)
Brassica oleracea
Cd, Zn, Sb
0.924
1.801
(Xiong et al. 2014a)
Spinacia oleracea
Cd, Zn, Sb
0.053
0.103
(Xiong et al. 2014a)
Table 12 Oral reference doses (RfD) and upper tolerable daily intake limit (UL) for metals
(USEPA 2009)
Metals
UL (mg/day)
RfD (mg/kg/day)
CSF (mg/kg/day)
Fe
0.45 Â 10
2
7 Â 10
À1
1.5
Zn
0.4 Â 10
2
3 Â 10
À1
0.0085
Cu
0.10 Â 10
2
4 Â 10
À2
6.1
Pb
2.40 Â 10
À1
4 Â 10
À3
–
Cd
6.40 Â 10
À2
1 Â 10
À3
0.5
Mn
0.11 Â 10
2
33 Â 10
À3
0.84
Cr
1.05 Â 10
À2
0.015 Â 10
2
–
Ni
0.01 Â 10
2
2 Â 10
À2
–
As
–
3 Â 10
À4
–
Table 13 Different parameters and their values used to calculate the risk assessment factors
Abbreviation
Parameters
Value
Reference
C metal (mg/kg) Concentration of metal in plant edible part
–
–
IR (g/day)
Average ingestion rate of vegetable/crop
100.4
(USEPA 1997)
Cf
Conversion factor
0.085
(Rehman et al. 2016)
EF (days/year) Exposure frequency
365
–
ED (years)
Exposure duration (average life expectancy) 64.4
(WHO 2015)
AT (days)
Average time of exposure
23,506 (Shahid et al. 2017c)
BW (kg)
Average body weight
70
(WHO 2016)
Ecotoxicology of Heavy Metal(loid)-Enriched Particulate Matter: Foliar. . .
91