396
chemical versatility. Generally, chitin is found in the exoskeletons of sea creatures
such as prawns, lobster, shrimp, and crabs and also extracted from the fungi cell
wall, whereas chitosan was produced by the boiling of chitin in potassium hydroxide. Both the chitin and chitosan are used as efficient adsorbents for metal as well as
dye removal. But, because of the high affinity, chitosan has more potential to adsorb
pollutant including dye and heavy metals (Vakili et al. 2014). These materials are
used at the different shape, like bead types, flake types, fibers, or gels. Because of
their robust crystal structure, it has been modified by using different cross-linking
agents and surfactants to increase the adsorption efficiency and chemical versatility
by controlling their undesirable characteristic (Raval et al. 2017). Rahman and
Akter (2016) prepared the chitin from shrimp shell by using different chemical process involving demineralization, deproteinization, and decolorization for the treatment of dye. The result shows the removal the efficiency almost 96% at pH 5 in
60 min of contact time (Rahman and Akter 2016). However, the major drawbacks
like low mechanical strength and solubility in acid and low surface area limited the
performance in adsorption process (Vakili et al. 2014). Tang et al. 2014 used chitin
hydrogel for removing malachite green effectively with maximum adsorption
capacity 26.88 mg/g (Tang et al. 2014).
15.4.4 Synthesized Novel Products
Finally, this paragraph describes about the novel innovative materials, those are
developed from various industrial and agricultural waste for the treatment of pollutant as low-cost adsorbents. Because of the high cost of commercial activated carbon, activated carbon can be developed from various agricultural wastes materials,
such as coconut fibers, rice bran and husk, pecan nut shell, eucalyptus wood, waste
coffee grounds, and fertilizer waste. Zeolite can be successfully synthesized by
using fly ash, diatomite and kaolin. Diatomite and fly ash can be converted into
zeolite P, while kaolin can be converted into a mixture of zeolites X and A
(Hernandez-Ramirez and Holmes 2008). Rajeshwarisivaraj et al. (2001) synthesized activated carbon derived from cassava peel from food industry. The activated
carbon using phosphoric acid activation was very efficient in removing almost
100% of all dye from industrial wastewater (Rajeshwarisivaraj et al. 2001).
Kavipriya et al. (2002) prepared activated carbon from the agricultural solid wastes
such as coconut tree sawdust, silk cotton hull, maize cob, sago waste, and banana
pith for the removal of dye from industrial wastewater and found effective removal
of methylene blue 93.35%, rhodamine-B 82.65%, and Congo red 76.55% in 24 h
(Kavipriya et al. 2002). Singh et al. (2003) using coconut shell fibers also developed
activated carbon for the removing methyl orange and methylene blue. The removal
efficiency was 100% for both of the dyes at low concentration (Singh et al. 2003).
Wang et al. (2005) used unburned carbon from fly ash as adsorbents for the removal
of methylene blue from aqueous effluent. They studied that the unburned carbon has
higher capacity of adsorption than natural zeolite and fly ash. The adsorption
M. Sardar et al.
chemical versatility. Generally, chitin is found in the exoskeletons of sea creatures
such as prawns, lobster, shrimp, and crabs and also extracted from the fungi cell
wall, whereas chitosan was produced by the boiling of chitin in potassium hydroxide. Both the chitin and chitosan are used as efficient adsorbents for metal as well as
dye removal. But, because of the high affinity, chitosan has more potential to adsorb
pollutant including dye and heavy metals (Vakili et al. 2014). These materials are
used at the different shape, like bead types, flake types, fibers, or gels. Because of
their robust crystal structure, it has been modified by using different cross-linking
agents and surfactants to increase the adsorption efficiency and chemical versatility
by controlling their undesirable characteristic (Raval et al. 2017). Rahman and
Akter (2016) prepared the chitin from shrimp shell by using different chemical process involving demineralization, deproteinization, and decolorization for the treatment of dye. The result shows the removal the efficiency almost 96% at pH 5 in
60 min of contact time (Rahman and Akter 2016). However, the major drawbacks
like low mechanical strength and solubility in acid and low surface area limited the
performance in adsorption process (Vakili et al. 2014). Tang et al. 2014 used chitin
hydrogel for removing malachite green effectively with maximum adsorption
capacity 26.88 mg/g (Tang et al. 2014).
15.4.4 Synthesized Novel Products
Finally, this paragraph describes about the novel innovative materials, those are
developed from various industrial and agricultural waste for the treatment of pollutant as low-cost adsorbents. Because of the high cost of commercial activated carbon, activated carbon can be developed from various agricultural wastes materials,
such as coconut fibers, rice bran and husk, pecan nut shell, eucalyptus wood, waste
coffee grounds, and fertilizer waste. Zeolite can be successfully synthesized by
using fly ash, diatomite and kaolin. Diatomite and fly ash can be converted into
zeolite P, while kaolin can be converted into a mixture of zeolites X and A
(Hernandez-Ramirez and Holmes 2008). Rajeshwarisivaraj et al. (2001) synthesized activated carbon derived from cassava peel from food industry. The activated
carbon using phosphoric acid activation was very efficient in removing almost
100% of all dye from industrial wastewater (Rajeshwarisivaraj et al. 2001).
Kavipriya et al. (2002) prepared activated carbon from the agricultural solid wastes
such as coconut tree sawdust, silk cotton hull, maize cob, sago waste, and banana
pith for the removal of dye from industrial wastewater and found effective removal
of methylene blue 93.35%, rhodamine-B 82.65%, and Congo red 76.55% in 24 h
(Kavipriya et al. 2002). Singh et al. (2003) using coconut shell fibers also developed
activated carbon for the removing methyl orange and methylene blue. The removal
efficiency was 100% for both of the dyes at low concentration (Singh et al. 2003).
Wang et al. (2005) used unburned carbon from fly ash as adsorbents for the removal
of methylene blue from aqueous effluent. They studied that the unburned carbon has
higher capacity of adsorption than natural zeolite and fly ash. The adsorption
M. Sardar et al.